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PROFESSOR  OF  LATIN   IN   YALE   UNIVERSITY 

AND 
MORRIS    H.   MORGAN,   PH.D., 

PROFESSOR   OF  CLASSICAL   PHILOLOGY   IN   HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


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SELECTIONS 


FROM   THE 


PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  LAW 
OF  THE   ROMANS 


WITH   A   COMMENTARY  TO   SERVE   AS  AN 
INTRODUCTION  TO   THE   SUBJECT 


BY 


JAMES   J.  ROBINSON,  PH.D. 

FORMERLY  INSTRUCTOR   IN   LATIN,  YALE   UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK- :•  CINCINNATI- :•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1905,  BY 
EDWARD  P.  MORRIS  AND  MORRIS  H.  MORGAN. 

ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON. 
LAW  OF  THE  ROMANS. 

W.  P.    I 


STACK 
ANNEX 

tc 


KG  ilk  5* 

PREFACE 

THE  purpose  of.  this  book  is  to  introduce  the  student  to 
some  of  the  more  interesting  and  instructive  principles  of 
Roman  law  by  selected  passages  from  the  original  Latin 
sources.  It  is  intended  to  offer  to  students  of  Latin  a 
selection  of  texts  gathered  from  a  field  well  worthy  of 
study  by  those  who  would  broaden  their  view  of  Roman 
life  and  institutions,  as  well  as  by  those  who  would  extend 
their  acquaintance  with  the  Latin  language  beyond  the 
Latinity  of  the  authors  usually  read  in  a  college  course. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  repeat  what  is  acknowledged 
on  all  sides  —  that  Rome's  legal  and  political  institutions 
are  the  imperishable  monument  to  the  real  genius  and 
civilization  of  her  people,  and  that  they  constitute  her  most 
important  contribution  to  the  modern  world. 

Furthermore,  along  with  the  more  recent  tendency  to 
broaden  the  scope  of  philological  studies,  it  is  beginning 
to  be  more  fully  recognized  that  the  language  of  the 
Roman  legal  writers  is  worthy  of  greater  attention  than 
it  has  hitherto  received.  The  Roman  jurists  were  as  a 
rule  exponents  of  a  concise,  clear,  and  elegant  style.  At 
a  time  when  Latin  literature  had  lost  its  art,  and  artificial- 
ity of  thought  and  diction  was  substituted  for  the  better 
tradition,  the  jurists  were  still  writing  with  a  simplicity 
and  elegance  worthy  of  the  importance  and  dignity  of 
their  subject-matter  and  in  keeping  with  their  distinguished 

5 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 

position  in  public  life.  The  concrete  case  arising  in  the 
everyday,  practical  affairs  of  men  formed  the  basis  of  their 
abstractions,  and  their  writings,  being  the  record  of  experi- 
ence drawn  from  the  life  of  their  own  day,  contribute  to  a 
more  complete  understanding  of  the  Roman  people. 

The  best  texts  have  been  followed,  and  only  an  occa- 
sional verbal  change  has  been  allowed  when  required  to 
render  the  text  more  intelligible.  No  attempt  has  been 
made  toward  uniformity  of  spelling  of  words  drawn  from 
so  many  sources.  One  linguistic  difficulty  in  legal  texts 
cannot  be  avoided.  From  the  manner  in  which  they  have 
been  preserved  and  transmitted,  it  can  never  be  positively 
determined  that  we  have  the  exact  words  of  the  author 
excerpted  or  the  linguistic  peculiarities  of  his  period.  The 
excerpts  (fragmcnta  or  leges}  presented  in  Justinian's 
Digest  suffered  revision  at  the  hands  of  the  jurists  compil- 
ing that  work.  The  extent  to  which  the  idiom  and  vocabu- 
lary of  authors  already  several  centuries  dead  were  thereby 
affected,  cannot  now  be  determined. 

The  classical  student  should  perhaps  be  reminded  that 
there  are  no  sources  giving  anything  like  a  general  survey 
of  the  law  as  it  was  in  the  best  days  of  Rome.  No  attempt 
has  been  made,  therefore,  in  these  selections  to  present 
the  law  of  any  one  period,  but  the  historical  development 
of  some  institutions  has  been  briefly  traced  in  the  notes. 

Extracts  from  the  legal  literature  have  been  freely 
quoted  in  the  notes,  both  to  explain  the  text  and  to 
encourage  the  student  to  acquaint  himself  still  further 
with  the  original  sources.  The  technical  terms  of  Roman 
law  commonly  occurring  in  Latin  literature  and  works  on 
Roman  history,  and  many  of  the  concise  and  pithy  maxims 
characteristic  of  the  Roman  legal  system,  have  been  put 

6 


PREFACE 

before  the  learner  with  considerable  frequency  by  inten- 
tional repetition  and  by  cross  reference. 

Chief  attention  has  been  given  to  the  subject-matter, 
but  an  occasional  linguistic  or  grammatical  difficulty  has 
been  explained  or  reference  has  been  given  to  the  school 
grammars  in  general  use,  indicated  by  the  usual  initials. 

In  addition  to  acknowledgments  made  in  the  notes,  the 
author's  indebtedness  to  many  of  the  more  important 
works  on  Roman  law  is  publicly  acknowledged  by  append- 
ing at  the  end  of  the  volume  a  list  of  works  cited  and 
most  frequently  consulted. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  due  Professor  Eduard 
Holder  and  Professor  August  von  Bechmann,  of  the  uni- 
versities of  Leipzig  and  Munich  respectively,  for  material 
drawn  from  notes  taken  in  their  most  instructive  and 
learned  lectures. 

My  friend  and  former  colleague,  Professor  J.  W.  D. 
Ingersoll,  of  Yale  University,  very  courteously  read  the 
manuscript  and  offered  valued  criticism.  I  am  most 
deeply  indebted  to  my  friend  and  former  colleague,  Pro- 
fessor E.  P.  Morris,  for  his  constant  encouragement  from 
the  very  inception  of  the  idea  of  publishing  some  legal 
selections,  and  for  his  careful  criticism  and  help  at  every 
stage  of  the  work. 

The  fact  that  the  author  knows  no  book  of  similar  pur- 
pose, and  has  had  to  determine  and  pursue  his  own  course 
without  guide  or  forerunner,  has  not  only  increased  his 
difficulties,  but  has  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  avoid 
many  imperfections. 

JAMES  J.  ROBINSON. 

THE  HOTCHKISS  SCHOOL, 
LAKEVILLE,  CONNECTICUT. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION — THE  SOURCES  OF  ROMAN  PRIVATE  LAW    .         11-30 
Customary  Law  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .11 

Statute  Law 12 

Leges  Regiae 12 

The  Twelve  Tables ...12 

Edicts  of  the  Magistrates 14 

Decrees  of  the  Senate          . 16 

Constitutions  of  the  Emperor 17 

Scientific  Jurisprudence 18 

The  Literature  of  the  Classical  Roman  Law 21 

Sources  of  Law  after  Diocletian  ........  23 

Pre-Justinian  Codes  and  Collections  of  Law         .....  23 

Legislation  of  Justinian 24 

The  Code 25 

The  Fifty  Decisions 25 

The  Pandects  or  Digest 26 

The  Institutes      ...........  27 

The  New  Code    .         ..........  27 

The  Novellae 28 

The  Roman  Barbarian  Codes       ........  28 

SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  ROMAN  LAW      .         30-40 

The  Extant  Sources  of  Roman  Law  in  their  Original  Form          .         .  30 

The  Pre-Justinian  Sources  .........  32 

The  Writings  of  Jurists 32 

The  Pre-Justinian  Sources  of  the  Post-classical  Period  35 

Extant  Remains  of  Pre-Justinian  Constitutions 36 

The  Remains  of  the  Leges  Regiae  and  the  Twelve  Tables  ...  37 
The  Extant  Remains  of  Popular  Enactments,  Edicts,  and  the  Decrees 

of  the  Senate 37 

Legal  Documents  of  a  Private  Character 38 

The  Non-juristic  Literature 38 

Books  of  Selections  from  the  Sources 39 

INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  TO  POMPONIVS,  D.  i,  2,  2,  DE  ORIGINE 

IVRIS 41 

SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW  — De  origine  iuris 

et  omnium  magistratuum  et  successione  prudentium         .         .         .45 

Preliminary  Definitions 72 

Persons 77 

Freemen  and  Slaves 79 

Freeborn 81 

Slaves 83 

8 


CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Slavery  arising  from  Captivity 84 

Manumission        ...........  88 

Manumission  Restricted      .........  95 

Freedom  acquired  without  Consent  of  Master     .....  100 

Relation  of  Patron  and  Freedman        .......  102 

Definition  of  the  Term  Family    ........  104 

The  Agnatic  Family 107 

Cognatic  Relationship 108 

Marriage no 

Impediments  to  Marriage 114 

Betrothal .         .         .         .119 

Dissolution  of  Marriage       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .122 

Manus 125 

Patria  Potestas 127 

Adoption 132 

Arrogation 135 

Capitis  Deminutio 136 

Guardianship 139 

The  Law  of  Things 157 

Acquisition  of  Ownership  {lure  Gentium*)          .         .         .         .         .165 

Treasure-trove     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .179 

Acquisition  of  Ownership  (fure  Civili)       ......  181 

Vsucapio      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  184 

Subordinate  Rights  of  Ownership,  Servitudes      .....  188 

Praedial  Servitudes      ..........  190 

Personal  Servitudes     ..........  195 

The  Law  of  Obligations      .........  201 

Real  Contracts    ...........  201 

Verbal  Contracts           ..........  205 

Literal  Contracts          ..........  206 

Consensual  Contracts  ...         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  209 

Sale     .............  209 

Hire 217 

Societas 220 

Mandatum 224 

Obligations  quasi  ex  Contractu 228 

Obligations  ex  Delicto          .........  232 

Theft 233 

Robbery      ............  239 

Damage  to  Property    ..........  242 

Injury  to  the  Person    ..........  250 

Obligations  quasi  ex  Delicto        ........  255 

The  Law  of  Inheritance      .........  259 

APPENDIX.     WORKS  CITED  OR  CONSULTED    .        .        .        .293 

INDEX  TO  THE  INTRODUCTION  AND  NOTES  .        .        .        .297 


EXPLANATION  OF  REFERENCES  TO 
THE  SOURCES 


C.  5,  17,  8.  Justinian's  Code,  book  5,  title  17,  constitution  8. 

C.  Th.  9,  5,  i.  Theodosian  Code,  book  9,  title  5,  constitution  i. 
Collat.  6,  3,  i.  Comparison  of  Roman  and  Mosaic  Law,  title  6, 

fragment  3,  paragraph  I . 

D.  i,  2,  2,  pr.  Justinian's  Digest,  book  i,  title  2,  fragment  2, prin- 

cipiuin  (initial  paragraph). 

Fr.  Vat.  149.  Vatican  Fragments,  paragraph  149. 

Gai.  i,  13.  Institutes  of  Gaius,  book  i,  paragraph  13. 

Gai.  D.  9,  2,4,  I.  Justinian's  Digest,  book  9,  title  2,  fragment  (from 
Gaius)  4,  paragraph  i. 

Inst.  2,  5,  3.  Justinian's  Institutes,  book  2,  title  5,  paragraph  3. 

Nov.  118,  3,  i.  Justinian's  Novellae,  number  118,  chapter  3,  para- 
graph i. 

Paul.  2,  20,  i.  Sententiae  of  Paulus,  book  2,  title  20,  paragraph  I. 

Paul.  D.  i,  3,  36.  Justinian's  Digest,  book  i,  title  3,  fragment  (from 
Paulus)  36. 

Ulp.  i,  24.  Fragments  of  Ulpian,  title  i,  paragraph  24. 

Ulp.  D.  3,  3,  i.  Justinian's  Digest,  book  3,  title  3,  fragment  or  lex 
(from  Ulpian)  I. 


10 


INTRODUCTION 

THE   SOURCES   OF   ROMAN    PRIVATE   LAW 

i.  Customary  Law.  —  Of  all  the  peoples  of  antiquity,  the 
Romans  displayed  the  greatest  political  and  legal  genius. 
Organization  of  government  and  formulation  of  legal  rights 
were  problems  to  which  they  devoted  their  best  thought 
and  abilities.  Rome's  most  enduring  monument,  there- 
fore, and  her  greatest  contribution  to  the  modern  world  is 
her  jurisprudence. 

Unlike  most  peoples  of  antiquity,  the  Romans  regarded 
their  law  as  springing  from  a  human  source.  Their  con- 
stitution was  a  slow  and  gradual  growth,  the  work  of  many 
men  through  many  years,  and  the  fundamental  principle 
of  the  constitution  was  that  the  people  were  the  source  of 
law.  As  time  went  on,  however,  several  agencies  came 
into  being  which  were  instrumental  in  creating  and  de- 
veloping the  Roman  legal  system,  as  will  appear  from  a 
historical  survey  of  the  sources  of  the  private  law. 

The  Romans,  like  other  primitive  peoples,  lived  for 
centuries  governed  by  no  rules  of  civil  conduct  save  those 
growing  out  of  custom  (inos,  mores,  consnetudo).  Princi- 
ples of  customary  law,  growing  out  of  the  life  and  experi- 
ences of  the  community,  lived  on  after  conscious  legislation 
by  the  organs  of  the  sovereign  power  began.  The  Romans 
looked  upon  custom  as  a  source  of  law,  though  inferior  in 
quality  to  statute  law,  which  met  more  clearly  their  idea 
of  precision  and  definiteness  of  form.  After  the  Roman 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

people  began  to  express  their  will  in  direct  legislation, 
customary  law  continued  to  have  validity  as  subsidiary  law 
when  not  expressly  abrogated  by  statute. 

2.  Statute  Law. — A  resolution  enacted   by  the  entire 
people  (Populus  Romanus)  in  assembly  was  called  lex.     A 
plebiscitum  was  a  resolution  enacted  by  the  plebeians  alone 
in  their  assembly.     Originally  plebiscite  were  binding  on 
the  plebeians   only,   but   by   the    Hortensian    law   (about 
287  B.C.),  after  the  conflicts  between  patricians  and  ple- 
beians had  ended,  they  were  binding  on  all  citizens.    There- 
after lex  and  plebiscitum  were  used  without  distinction  of 
meaning,  *  plebiscitum  being  often  designated  as  a  lex. 

3.  Leges  Regiae.  —  According  to  the  tradition  handed 
down  in  the  sources,  laws  were  enacted  by  the  people  as 
early  as  the  Regal  period.      These  so-called  leges  regiae 
were  collected  and  published  by  the  first  Pontifex  Maximus, 
named  C.  Papirius. 

The  first  authentic  mention  of  these  laws  dates  from  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar  (ins  Papiriamini).  These  laws  were 
ascribed  to  individual  kings,  mostly  to  the  first  three,  and 
though  they  are  undoubtedly  of  great  antiquity,  their  sub- 
ject-matter shows  that  they  are  not  leges  properly,  but 
belong  rather  to  the  sacred  law,  being  ordinances  of  the 
pontifical  college. 

The  ascription  of  these  so-called  laws  to  individual  kings 
is  doubtless  apocryphal,  as  is,  perhaps,  the  account  of 
the  kings  themselves,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  true 
explanation  of  their  origin,  later  writers  sought  to  endow 
them  with  greater  antiquity  and  sanctity  by  connecting 
them  with  the  names  of  the  earliest  kings. 

4.  The  Twelve  Tables. — According  to  the  tradition,  the 
Decemviri  published  the  private  law  and  certain  provisions 

12 


INTRODUCTION 

of  the  public  law  about  sixty  years  after  the  beginning  of 
the  republic,  on  twelve  tables.  These  tables  remained 
thereafter  the  basis  of  Roman  law,  and  were  not  formally 
repealed  until  the  time  of  the  publication  of  Justinian's 
law  books. 

The  codification  of  the  law  by  the  Decemviri  was 
politically,  the  tradition  says,  the  result  of  a  compromise 
between  the  patricians  and  the  plebeians,  whereby  the 
plebeians  were  to  receive  protection  against  patrician  mis- 
rule. Though  the  contents  of  the  extant  fragments  do 
not  support  this  view,  it  does  appear  that  the  severity  of 
the  previous  customary  law  was  somewhat  mitigated  in 
favor  of  the  non-ruling  classes. 

The  sources  abound  in  reference  to  the  Greek  influence 
on  the  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  but  with  such  widely 
differing  opinions  that  the  whole  question  has  been  looked 
upon  with  suspicion.  Some  ancient  authors  would  refer 
the  entire  Roman  code  to  a  Greek  source,  while  others 
claim  only  a  partial  incorporation  of  foreign  law.  There 
are  undoubtedly  traces  of  Greek  influence  in  the  decemvi- 
ral  legislation,  but  the  sweeping  assignment  of  the  Roman 
code  to  a  Greek  origin  is  only  one  of  the  general  inven- 
tions of  early  Roman  history.  The  whole  idea  of  the 
Decemvirate  as  an  irresponsible  magistracy,  with  extraor- 
dinary powers  to  administer  the  government,  codify  the 
law,  and  supersede  constituted  authority,  is  doubtless  an 
invention  closely  modeled  after  a  Greek  original. 

It  is  impossible  to  separate  the  real  from  the  fictitious  in 
the  transmitted  accounts,  but  the  prevailing  modern  opinion 
is  that  the  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables  was,  in  all  of  its  more 
important  provisions,  of  a  national  character,  being  the 
native  customary  law  which  the  Decemviri  codified  and 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

published  after  the  proper  ratification  by  the  Comitia 
Centuriata. 

The  Twelve  Tables  are,  therefore,  a  statute  and  are 
often  designated  by  the  Romans  as  Lex,  simply,  i.e.  as 
their  most  important  lex. 

It  is  commonly  supposed  that  the  original  tabulae  per- 
ished in  the  destruction  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  390  B.C. 
They  were  probably  reconstructed  and  were  well  known 
in  the  days  of  Cicero,  who  intimates  that  schoolboys  in  his 
day  learned  them  by  heart.  Literary  traces  of  them  appear 
as  late  as  the  fifth  century  of  our  era. 

The  extant  fragments  of  these  laws  have  been  trans- 
mitted, partly  in  the  original  phraseology,  partly  in  sub- 
stance only,  and  chiefly  by  non-juristic  writers. 

After  the  Twelve  Tables,  statutes  continued  to  be 
enacted ;  but  after  the  time  of  the  Punic  wars,  direct  leg- 
islation by  popular  assemblies,  at  no  time  a  very  fruitful 
source  of  law,  grew  gradually  less.  After  codification 
followed  a  period  of  interpretation.  New  agencies  were 
employed  in  the  further  development  of  the  private  law. 
In  the  early  empire,  the  activity  of  the  popular  assembly 
ceased,  and  by  the  changes  in  the  constitution  whereby  the 
power  was  divided  between  the  emperor  and  the  senate, 
the  making  of  new  leges  and  plebiscita  eventually  ceased. 
The  last  lex  which  the  sources  show  was  enacted  under  the 
Emperor  Nerva. 

5.  Edicts  of  the  Magistrates.  —  By  the  Roman  constitu- 
tion, every  magistrate  was  empowered  to  issue  proclama- 
tions concerning  the  business  of  his  own  office  and,  when 
these  were  made  in  writing  and  displayed  in  a  public  place, 
they  were  called  edicta. 

Edicta  might  be  issued  for  a  single  case,  with  only  tem- 

14 


INTRODUCTION 

porary  force  {edicta  repentina),  or  they  might  contain 
measures  which  continued  in  force  during  the  magistrate's 
entire  term  of  office  (edicta  perpetua). 

In  the  year  367  B.C.  the  administration  of  justice  was 
intrusted  to  a -newly  created  magistracy  called  the  praetor- 
ship.  The  praetor  had  the  general  supervision  of  the 
Roman  judicial  system,  and  was  at  the  same  time  judge 
and  minister  of  justice.  About  the  year  242  B.C.  a  second 
praetor  was  installed,  whose  duty  it  was  to  sit  in  judgment 
in  cases  in  which  one  or  both  parties  were  peregrini.  He 
was,  therefore,  at  a  later  time  called  Praetor  Peregrinus ; 
the  other  praetor  whose  judicial  duties  were  inter  cives, 
having  already  been  designated  Praetor  Urbanus.  It  was 
the  duty  of  the  praetors  to  make  use  of  their  ins  edicendi 
to  set  forth  the  main  principles  of  law  and  procedure  as 
they  were  to  be  administered  during  their  term  of  office. 
The  praetor's  edict  was  exposed  in  a  public  place,  on  a 
white  board  (album],  at  the  beginning  of  his  term  of  ser- 
vice. The  only  other  magisterial  edicts  of  legal  impor- 
tance were  those  of  the  curule  aediles  (e  dictum  aediliciinn) 
and  the  provincial  governors  (edicta  provincialid}.  Of 
these,  the  former  were  occupied  chiefly  with  matters  per- 
taining to  the  markets,  and  the  latter  with  the  business  of 
provincial  administration. 

Each  magistrate  had  individual  freedom  as  to  the  con- 
tents of  his  own  edict.  It  became  customary,  however,  for 
each  succeeding  officer  to  adopt,  so  far  as  practicable,  the 
greater  part  of  his  predecessor's  edict,  introducing  only 
emendations  and  improvement  in  form  or  substance.  It 
resulted,  therefore,  that  the  fundamental  parts  of  the  edict 
were  handed  down  unchanged  (edictum  tralaticium\  while, 
at  the  same  time,  the  edict  was  the  instrument  wherein 

15 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

could  be  incorporated  any  desirable  innovations,  such  as, 
for  example,  the  granting  of  a  new  remedy  or  the  admis- 
sion of  a  new  form  of  plea.  It  was  for  this  reason  that 
the  Roman  jurists  called  the  praetor's  edict  the  viva  vox 
inris  civilis. 

.  The  praetorian  edict  rose  to  great  importance  in  the 
development  of  the  law.  The  bulk  of  praetorian  law  (ins 
honorariuni)  was  developed  during  the  republican  period. 
After  the  establishment  of  the  empire,  the  praetor's  func- 
tion as  minister  of  law  was  absorbed  by  the  emperor  him- 
self, and  the  praetorian  edict  passed  into  a  stereotyped 
form.  Hadrian  commissioned  the  great  jurist,  Salvius 
Julianus,  to  revise  the  edicts  of  the  praetor  urbanus,  the 
praetor  peregrinus,  and  the  curule  aedile,  consolidating 
them  into  a  system  of  praetorian  law  (edictum  lulianuni}. 

The  law  as  set  forth  in  the  edict  was  called  magisterial 
law  (ius  honorarium,  ius  praetorium,  ins  aediliciuni)  and 
was  sharply  distinguished  from  statute  and  customary  law 
(ius  civile).  The  praetor  developed  legal  principles 
through  his  control  of  procedure,  rather  than  by  the  direct 
creation  of  law,  since  he  was  engaged  chiefly  with  the 
admission  of  pleas,  with  remedies,  and  with  the  granting 
or  refusal  of  actions  based  on  equitable  considerations. 
Praetorian  law  and  the  ius  civile  continued  to  exist  side 
by  side  until  the  time  of  Diocletian.  Thereafter  they  were 
blended  for  the  most  part  into  one  system,  though  traces 
of  their  different  origin  still  appeared  in  the  law  of 
Justinian. 

6.  Decrees  of  the  Senate.  —  During  the  early  history  of 
Rome  the  senate  was  not  a  law-making  body,  but  its  influ- 
ence on  legislation  was  felt  through  the  auctoritas  patrum, 
the  senate  being  the  advisory  council  of  the  executive. 

16 


INTRODUCTION 

Toward  the  end  of  the  republic,  decrees  of  the  senate 
seem  to  have  had  the  force  of  law  to  a  limited  extent. 
What  had  been  originally  received  as  advice  came  now  to 
be  regarded  as  a  command.  In  the  empire,  however,  the 
senate  acquired  full  powers  of  a  legislative  body.  During 
the  first  century  of  the  empire  the  constitutional  right  of 
the  senate  to  make  law  was  still  questioned,  but  as  the 
popular  enactment  of  the  comitia  gradually  disappeared, 
the  decrees  of  the  senate  attained  greater  prominence. 

7.  Constitutions  of  the  Emperor.  —  All  manifestations  of 
the  emperor's  will  which  concerned  the  development  of 
law  were  called  imperial  constitutions  (placita  or  consti- 
tutiones  principunt).  From  the  beginning  of  the  empire, 
the  decrees  emanating  from  the  emperor  were  of  great 
legal  significance.  After  the  second  century,  all  ordi- 
nances of  this  kind  were  called  by  the  general  collective 
name,  constitutions  of  the  emperor. 

Of  these  there  were  four  kinds  :  — 

(1)  Edicta.     The  emperor,  like  other  magistrates,  had 
the  general  power  of  issuing  proclamations  (ins  edicendi}. 
His  edicta  were  public  ordinances  of  a  general  character, 
containing  provisions  for  future  observance. 

(2)  Decreta.     As  the  word  indicates  (cernere),  the  decreta 
were  decisions  of  a  judicial  character.     The  emperor,  as 
the  chief  magistrate,  could  review  the  decisions  of  all  cases, 
as  well  as  decide  them  in  the  first  instance. 

(3)  Epistulae.     These  embraced  all  expressions  of  the 
imperial  will  in  epistolary  form.     When  the  epistulae  were 
replies  to  questions  of  officials  or  private  persons  regarding 
points  of  law,  they  were  frequently  called  rescripta.    These 
answers  were  sometimes  in  the  form  of  special  letters  and 
sometimes  merely  added  as  footnotes  (subscriptiones)  in  the 

ROMAN    IAW  —  2  i 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

letter  of  inquiry  and  returned  to  the  sender.  Rescripts 
were  most  frequent  in  private  suits,  where  the  emperor, 
upon  request,  decided  doubtful  points  of  law,  leaving  the 
questions  of  fact  to  the  judge,  who  was  absolutely  bound 
by  the  interpretation  of  the  emperor.  Before  the  time  of 
Hadrian,  rescripts  were  apparently  addressed  to  judicial 
magistrates  only,  thereafter  to  private  persons  as  well. 

(4)  Mandata,  Magistrates,  even  during  the  republic, 
had  the  power  to  delegate  (mandare)  authority  to  subor- 
dinates to  execute  certain  business  of  their  office.  The 
emperors  availed  themselves  of  this  privilege  to  a  high 
degree  and  through  general  instructions  (mandate)  issued 
to  provincial  governors  and  other  officials  directed  them 
as  regards  the  conduct  of  their  respective  offices.  These 
directions  were  usually  in  writing,  and  in  this  way  they 
obtained  significance  as  sources  of  law. 

Through  these  various  ways  in  which  the  emperor 
manifested  his  will,  it  came  about  that  by  the  time  of 
Diocletian,  the  jurists  ascribed  to  the  emperor's  will  the 
force  of  law  (quod  principi  placuit,  legis  Jiabct  vigorcni), 
though  without  any  constitutional  authority  to  that  effect. 

8.  Scientific  Jurisprudence.  —  At  Rome,  in  the  earliest 
time,  the  pontiffs  were  the  depositaries  and  custodians  of 
law,  human  (ius)  and  divine  (fas).  They  alone  were 
acquainted  with  the  formulae  and  ritual  requisite  for  the 
worship  of  the  gods,  as  well  as  the  procedure  and  tradi- 
tions governing  the  legal  relations  of  men  with  one  another. 
It  was,  therefore,  the  pontiffs  who  were  the  earliest  coun- 
selors in  matters  of  law,  imparting  their  advice  (rcspondere) 
to  consulting  litigants  as  to  the  secret  and  intricate  method 
of  procedure  by  which  their  rights  could  be  brought  to  the 
test.  In  matters  of  state  importance,  the  decisions  of  the 

18 


INTRODUCTION 

pontifical  college  were  communicated  through  the  Pontifex 
Maximus.  Opinions  on  questions  of  private  law  were 
delivered  by  a  member  of  the  college  annually  detailed 
for  that  duty. 

The  responsa  of  the  pontifical  college  were  recorded 
(commentarii  pontificum},  and  the  formulated  rules  of  pro- 
cedure were  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  priestly  col- 
lege (libri  pontificuni).  Since  pontiffs  only  had  access  to 
these  hidden  mysteries,  early  procedure  was  veiled  in 
secrecy,  and,  being  unknown  to  laymen  and  the  unprivileged 
classes,  became  a  great  source  of  power  and  oppression  in 
the  hands  of  the  ruling  patrician  order. 

The  pontiffs,  as  the  sole  interpreters  of  the  law,  were 
instrumental  in  giving  it  shape  and  form  so  long  as  it 
existed  chiefly  in  the  form  of  unwritten,  customary  law. 

When  the  law  had  been  given  a  definite  form  and  had 
been  made  known  to  all  by  the  codification  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  ins  smdfas  began  to  be  more  definitely  separated, 
but  procedure  (actiones,  ins  actionum)  still  remained  in  the 
private  control  of  the  pontifical  college.  It  was  the  pontiffs 
who  still  retained  the  technical  knowledge  whereby  the 
machinery  of  the  law  could  be  set  in  motion  for  the  vindi- 
cation of  invaded  rights. 

According  to  the  traditional  account,  Appius  Claudius 
Caecus  made  a  collection  of  the  formulae  of  actions  as  they 
had  been  put  in  shape  by  the  pontiffs,  and  through  the 
agency  of  his  scribe  (Flavius)  they  were  made  public  (ins 
Flavianuni).  By  this  publication  the  monopoly  of  the 
patrician  pontiffs  was  broken.  Soon  thereafter,  the  first 
plebeian  pontifex  maximus,  Tiberius  Coruncanius  (about 
264  B.C.),  announced  himself  as  ready  to  give  advice  pub- 
licly regarding  the  mysteries  of  the  law  (primus  publice 

'9 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

profiteri  coepit\  not  only  to  those  interested  as  party  in  a 
particular  case,  but  also  to  those  seeking  a  theoretical 
knowledge  of  law.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  system  of 
public  legal  instruction  which  led  soon  to  the  preparation 
of  text-books  and  eventually  to  a  legal  literature. 

The  opportunity  was  thus  open  for  the  development  of 
a  trained  legal  profession.  Jurists  now  gave  advice  in  the 
technicalities  of  juristic  transactions  and  the  drawing  of 
formulae  (cavere),  the  method  of  court  procedure  (agere\ 
and  they  rendered  opinions  on  legal  questions  submitted 
to  fa&an(respondere\  Opinions  given  in  writing  (responsa\ 
though  they  were  not  binding,  had  a  strong  moral  influence 
on  the  court,  when  they  were  renderd  by  able  and  learned 
jurists.  Controversies  and  opposing  views  were  the  inevi- 
table result  of  these  responsa,  leading  to  a  lively  discussion 
of  principles,  which  gave  a  strong  impetus  to  the  progress 
of  a  legal  science  (disputatio  fori\ 

By  this  professional  activity,  new  spirit  began  to  be  in- 
fused into  the  letter  of  the  law.  Scientific  interpretation 
extended  the  principles  of  the  ins  civile,  making  them 
comprehensive  and  flexible.  In  addition  to  this  new 
application  of  principles  already  existing  in  the  ius  civile, 
the  jurists  took  up  new  principles  from  the  ius  gentium, 
giving  to  the  strict  Roman  law  a  more  equitable  and  uni- 
versal character. 

It  was  under  the  emperors  that  the  influence  of  the 
jurists  reached  its  highest  point.  Augustus,  in  his  political 
reorganization  of  the  state,  recognized  the  expediency  of 
enlisting  the  services  and  influence  of  the  professional 
jurists  to  the  support  of  his  cause.  He  therefore  conferred 
upon  certain  eminent  jurists  the  privilege  of  delivering 
opinions  (ius  respondendi}  which  had  the  force  of  law,  by 


INTRODUCTION 

authority  of  the  imperial  grant  (ex  auctoritate  principis). 
Those  jurists  having  the  ins  respondendi  were  called  inris 
auctores.  The  emperor  as  supreme  judge  could  delegate 
his  power  of  judicial  interpretation  to  others,  whose  deci- 
sions, by  his  commission,  were  authoritative. 

At  first  only  the  responsum  given  in  writing,  under  seal 
and  for  the  special  case,  was  binding  on  the  judge  ;  though 
it  soon  happened  that  the  writings  of  these  privileged 
jurists  came  also  to  have  the  authority  of  their  responsa. 
Hadrian  ordained  that  the  judge  should  be  bound  by  con- 
current responsa,  but  that,  when  they  were  divergent,  he 
should  decide  according  to  his  own  discretion. 

9.  The  Literature  of  the  Classical  Roman  Law.  —  The 
scientific  cultivation  of  law  led  to  an  enormous  literary  pro- 
ductiveness. As  early  as  100  B.C.  scientific  treatment  of 
subjects  began,  but  the  classical  period  of  legal  literature 
fell  in  a  time  when  other  forms  of  Latin  literature  were, 
rapidly  declining  or  had  entirely  lost  their  art.  Roughly 
the  years  between  150  and  250  A.D.  cover  the  classical 
period  of  Roman  jurisprudence.  Here  belong  the  names 
of  Gaius,  Papinian,  Ulpian,  Paulus,  in  whose  work  the  high- 
est degree  of  excellence  known  to  the  Roman  law  was 
attained.  The  scientific  legal  literature  of  Roman  jurists 
embraced  works  of  most  varied  kind  and  character,  of  which 
some  of  the  more  important  types  were  the  following:  — 

(1)  Commentaries  (a)  on    statute  law,   decrees  of  the 
senate,  and  imperial  constitutions,  (b}  on  the  praetorian 
edicts,  (c}  on  the  works  of  other  jurists. 

(2)  Digests  and  compilations  of  a  comprehensive  char- 
acter, covering  the  entire  legal  system. 

(3)  Practical   discussions   of   responsa  and  quaestiones. 
Of  these,  the  exposition  of  the  quaestiones  was  the  more 

21 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN    LAW 

detailed,  inquiring  more  minutely  into  the  underlying  prin- 
ciples of  the  cases  handled.  Disputationes  and  opinioncs 
were  discussions  of  a  similar  character. 

(4)   Institutioncs  or  elementary  text-books  for  beginners. 

(5).  Annotated  editions  of  earlier  jurists'  works,  contain- 
ing emendations  and  critical  comments  (notae). 

(6)  Monographs  on   various  subjects  of   legal   signifi- 
cance. 

(7)  Regiilae,  scntcntiae,  definitiones,  designed  especially 
for   practitioners,  containing   brief  collections   of  current 
legal  maxims  and  succinct  statements  of  the  more  common 
legal  principles. 

(8)  Popular  treatises,  containing  elementary  principles 
of  law,  set  forth  in  an  informal  way. 

This  classification  does  not  by  any  means  include  all  the 
forms  which  the  intellectual  output  of  the  jurists  exhibited. 
It  is  possible  to  gain  some  idea  of  the  literary  activity  of 
the  great  jurists  and  the  enormous  proportions  to  which 
legal  literature  attained,  from  the  titles  of  works  and  the 
number  of  volumes  of  each,  as  they  have  been  transmitted 
in  the  sources. 

Taking  as  examples  a  few  of  the  greatest  jurists,  it 
appears  that  Papinian's  chief  works,  Responsa  and  Qnacs- 
tioncs  were  in  19  and  37  books  respectively,  and  in  ad- 
dition to  these  he  was  the  author  of  several  books  of 
different  kinds ;  Paulus  wrote  one  commentary  on  the 
praetorian  edict  in  78  books,  Responsa  in  23  books,  Quacs- 
tiones  in  25  books,  and,  in  addition  to  these,  a  long  list  of 
works  making  a  total  of  89  known  by  title,  falling  into  319 
books ;  Ulpian's  commentary  on  the  praetorian  edict  con- 
tained 8 1  books,  his  work  Ad  Sabinnm  (commentary  on 
the  ins  civile  according  to  the  system  of  Sabinus)  5 1  books, 

22 


INTRODUCTION 

and  in  addition  to  these  enormous  works,  numerous  others, 
varying  in  size  from  one  to  several  books  each.  Labeo, 
the  great  jurist  who  was  contemporary  with  Augustus,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  author  of  400  legal  works. 

Of  the  mass  of  legal  literature  which  was  composed  before 
the  time  of  Diocletian,  only  a  small  fragment  is  extant. 

10.  Sources  of  Law  after  Diocletian.  — From  the  time  of 
Diocletian  the  emperor  was  the  only  organ  of  sovereign 
power,   an  absolute    monarch,   bound   by  no   law.      This 
change  in  the  constitution  naturally  had  its  influence  on 
the  further  development  of  the  law.     Already  the  jurists 
had  proclaimed  that  the  will  of  the  emperor  was  law,  but 
now  and  henceforth  there  was  but  one  source  of  law  and 
one  interpreter  of  law.     The  ins  respondendi  of  privileged 
jurists  was  a  thing  of  the  past.     Henceforth  authoritative 
responsa  emanated  from    the  emperor  himself   and   from 
him  alone.      The  further   progress  of   a    scientific    legal 
literature   was   interrupted.       Science    died,    to    be   only 
slightly   revived    toward    the   end    of    the    fifth    century, 
through  the  influence  of  the  law  schools. 

The  constitutiones  principum  were  now  the  only  source 
of  new  law. 

11.  Pre-Justinian    Codes    and    Collections    of    Law. — 
The  literature  of  law  and  the  constitutions  issued  by  the 
emperors  had  become  so  voluminous  that  the  practitioner 
was  unable  to  find  his  way  through  the  mass  of  interpre- 
tation and  decision.     The  inconvenience  of  working  with 
such  an  unwieldy  bulk  of  juristic  material  induced  private 
persons    to    undertake    its  abridgment    and   codification. 
Several  works  of  this  character  came  into  existence. 

(i)    Codex  Gregoriamis,  a  private  code  of  imperial  con- 
stitutions, which  were  issued  from  the  time  of  Hadrian  to 

23 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

295  A.D.,  containing  at  least  nineteen  books.     This  code 
was  published  about  300  A.D. 

(2)  Codex  Hermogenianus,    also   a   private  work   com- 
posed of  imperial  ordinances.     This  work  was  published 
as  a  supplement   to   the   foregoing   code,   and    appeared 
about  the  year  365  A.D. 

(3)  Fragmenta    Vaticana,   so-called  because  discovered 
in  the  Vatican  library.     This  collection,  containing  juristic 
writings  and   imperial  ordinances,   was   the  work   of   an 
unknown  author.     It  was  a  private  publication,  composed 
between  372  and  438  A.D. 

(4)  Collatio  legum  Mosaicarum  et  Romanarum  or  Lex 
Dei  quam   Dominus  praecepit  ad  Moysen,   a  parallel  of 
verses  from  the  Pentateuch  and   passages   from  several 
Roman  jurists,  the  Gregorian  and  Hermogenian  codes,  and 
one  or  two  later  ordinances.     The  work  was   published 
between  390  and  438  A.D.  by  an  unknown  author. 

(5)  Codex  Theodosianns,  a  codification  of  juristic  litera- 
ture and  imperial  constitutions  issued  after  Constantine's 
time,  prepared  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius  II. 
The  work  was  published  438  A.D.,  considerable  portions 
of  it  still  surviving. 

(6)  Consultatio  veteris  cuinsdam  tun's  consulti,  a  collec- 
tion of  opinions  delivered  by  a  jurist  to  an  advocate,  with 
citations   from    Paulus    and    the    three   codes    mentioned 
above. 

12.  Legislation  of  Justinian.  —  Justinian  succeeded  to  the 
throne  April  I,  527,  and  continued  to  reign  until  his  death, 
November  13,  565.  From  the  very  beginning  of  his  rule 
he  pursued  a  well-defined  plan  for  the  codification  of  the 
Roman  law.  For  the  execution  of  his  legal  reforms  he 
enlisted  the  services  of  his  minister,  Tribonian,  whose 

24 


INTRODUCTION 

ability  and  zeal  were  of  the  greatest  value  toward  the  suc- 
cessful accomplishment  of  the  undertaking. 

The  history  of  the  preparation  of  the  compilation  of 
Justinian's  law  books  is  given  in  detail  in  the  decrees  placed 
as  a  preface  to  the  different  parts  of  the  work.  Many 
of  the  facts  there  stated  have  been  lately  called  into  ques- 
tion, and  they  should  be  taken  with  due  allowance  for 
the  bombastic  and  exaggerated  style  of  an  Oriental 
monarch. 

What  is  commonly  called  the  Code  of  Justinian  consists 
of  four  parts,  as  it  exists  in  modern  times. 

(i)  The  Pandects,  or  Digest,  of  the  scientific  law  litera- 
ture ;  (2)  the  Codex,  or  collection  of  imperial  laws ;  (3)  the 
Institutiones,  or  introductory  text-book  for  instruction ;  (4) 
the  Novellae,  or  new  imperial  laws  issued  after  the  other 
works  were  completed. 

13.  The  Code.  —  By  royal  decree,  a  committee  of  ten 
men  was  instructed  to  prepare  a  collection  of  laws,  com- 
piled from  the  three  codes  and  the  imperial  constitutions 
issued  later  than  the  Theodosian  code,  together  with  the 
constitutions  already  issued  by  Justinian,  and  to  publish 
them  in  a  code  suitable  for  the  use  of  practitioners.     This 
work  was  completed  and  published  with  the  force  of  law, 
April  1 6,  529.     All  imperial  legislation  not  contained  in 
this  code  was  to   be    discarded.      This  work  was  called 
the  Codex  Iiistinianus. 

14.  The  Fifty  Decisions.  —  After  the  publication  of  the 
Codex,  Justinian  attempted  by  a  number  of  constitutions 
to  remove  misconceptions  and  conflicts  growing  out  of  the 
juristic   literature,  and  to  set  aside  or -alter  provisions  of 
the  law  which  had  become  dead  or  worthless.     These  were 
published  as  a  collection  in  531  A.D.,  and  were  known  as 

25 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

the  Qninqnaginta  Decisioncs.  These  have  not  survived  to 
the  modern  world. 

15.  The  Pandects  or  Digest.  —  The  foregoing  tasks  were 
only  preliminary  to  a  much  greater  undertaking,  —  the 
codification  of  the  scientific  law  literature.  For  the  execu- 
tion of  this  work,  a  new  commission  of  seventeen  members, 
under  the  leadership  of  Tribonian,  was  appointed  Decem- 
ber 15,  530. 

From  the  huge  mass  of  legal  literature  the  most  essen- 
tial material  was  to  be  extracted,  systematized,  and  ar- 
ranged in  one  harmonious  whole.  This  undertaking  was 
completed  and  published  with  force  of  law  December  30, 
533,  bearing  the  title  Pandectae  (irdv  +  ^e-^eaOai),  or  Di- 
gesta  (digerere). 

The  work  was  divided  into  fifty  books,  each  book  falling 
into  titles  (tituli),  and  each  title  having  its  appropriate 
heading  (rubrica,  "  written  in  red ").  Under  the  titles 
stand  the  excerpts,  called  fragment  a  or  leges  (fr.  or  /.), 
each  one  being  preceded  by  the  name  of  the  author  and  the 
name  of  the  work  excerpted.  Each  fragment  or  lex  is 
divided  into  ^.principiutn  (pr.~)  and  numbered  paragraphs. 

The  earliest  of  the  jurists  whose  writings  are  represented 
in  the  Digest  is  Q.  Mucius  Scaevola,  consul  95  B.C.  ;  the 
most  recent  were  Charisius  and  Hermogenianus  (about 
300  A.D.). 

Although  thirty-nine  jurists  in  all  are  represented  in  the 
excerpts  of  the  Digest,  the  great  bulk  of  the  material  was 
drawn  from  very  few  authors.  Ulpian  and  Paulus  together 
contribute  about  three  fifths  of  the  entire  Digest.  Of  this 
amount,  Ulpian  alone  furnishes  about  two  fifths.  The  rest 
of  the  material  of  the  Digest  is  drawn  chiefly  from  about 
eight  writers.  Arranged  according  to  the  amount  of  mat- 

26 


INTRODUCTION 

ter  contributed,  the  excerpted  authors  stand  approximately 
as  follows :  Ulpian,  Paulus,  Papinian,  Gaius,  Modestinus, 
Cervidius  Scaevola,  Poraponius,  Julianus,  and  (proximi longo 
intei-vallo^  Marcianus,  Javolenus,  Africanus,  Marcellus; 
these  twelve  furnished  about  eleven  twelfths  of  the  whole 
compilation. 

It  was  decreed  that  the  Digest  should  henceforth  be  the 
sole  authority  for  jurist-made  law,  and  that  only  the  ex- 
cerpts incorporated  in  this  work  should  have  validity. 

The  commission  had  full  authority  to  curtail,  alter,  or 
supplement  the  original  text  to  bring  the  subject-matter 
into  harmony  with  their  times.  Inasmuch  as  this  freedom 
was  extensively  employed,  it  is  not  always  certain  that  the 
text  is  that  of  the  original  excerpted  author  (Interpolationes, 
Emblemata  Triboniani). 

16.  The  Institutes.  —  As  a  part  of  the  general  plan  of 
his  legal  reforms,  Justinian  recognized  the  importance  of 
an  elementary  work  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to   the 
study  of  the  Digest,  and  intended  as  a  book  of  instruction 
(instituere)  for  beginners  in  the  study  of  law. 

This  work  was  prepared  by  two  law  professors,  under 
the  general  supervision  of  Tribonian,  and  was  published 
with  the  force  of  law  along  with  the  Digest,  December  30, 
533,  bearing  the  title,  Institntioncs, 

The  subject-matter  was  drawn  largely  from  the  Insti- 
tutes and  Res  Cottidianae  of  Gaius,  from  similar  works  of 
Ulpian,  and  from  the  Institutes  of  Florentinus  and  Mar- 
cianus, compiled  and  arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  present 
a  continuous  treatment  of  the  entire  legal  system. 

17.  The  New  Code.  —  So  much  new  law  had  been  cre- 
ated through  the  ordinances  of  Justinian  since  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Codex  in  529,  that  a  revision  of  that  work 

27 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

was  already  required.  This  undertaking  was  intrusted  to 
a  commission  under  the  leadership  of  Tribonian,  and  the 
work  was  ready  for  publication  with  the  force  of  law 
December  29,  534. 

The  revised  Codex  (Codex  repetitae  praelectionis]  con- 
tained, besides  the  revision  of  the  constitutions  of  the  pre- 
vious Codex,  the  imperial  ordinances  issued  since  529.  All 
constitutions  not  included  in  it  were  to  be  discarded  as 
invalid.  It  is  this  work,  chiefly  taken  up  with  matters  of 
public  law,  which  is  known  in  modern  times  as  the  Code. 

The  Codex  is  divided  into  twelve  books,  each  book  being 
subdivided  into  titles,  and  the  titles  into  leges  and  para- 
graphs. 

With  the  revision  of  the  Codex,  the  three  works  intended 
by  Justinian  to  constitute  one  single  code  of  law  were 
completed.  The  Corpus  luris  of  Justinian  was  composed 
of  (i)  the  Digest,  (2)  the  Institutes,  and  (3)  the  Code. 

18.  The  Novellae.  —  After  the   Corpus  luris  had  been 
published  with  statutory  force,  Justinian  continued  to  issue 
constitutions  to  supplement  and  correct  his  previous  works. 
These  were  issued  in  large  numbers  between  the  years  535 
and  565  A.D.     They  were  mostly  in  Greek,  some  in  both 
Greek  and  Latin,  and  a  few  in  Latin  only.     These  were 
collected  and  published  after  Justinian's  death  with  the 
title,  Novellae  (i.e.  novellae  constitutiones  post  codicem). 

The  collection  of  Institutes,  Digest,  Codex,  and  Novels 
constitutes  the  Corpus  luris  Civilis  in  the  form  in  which  it 
is  known  in  modern  times.  It  is  in  this  form  that  the 
Roman  law  has  been,  for  the  most  part,  preserved  and 
received  by  continental  Europe. 

19.  The  Roman  Barbarian  Codes.  —  Though  not  prop- 
erly reckoned  among  the  sources  of  Roman  law,  it  is  neces- 

28 


INTRODUCTION 

sary  to  notice  the  three  Codes  which  some  of  the  barbarian 
kings  promulgated  for  the  Roman  inhabitants  of  their 
respective  kingdoms,  and  which  were  drawn  from  Roman 
sources.  These  codes,  or  summaries,  are  sometimes  called 
Leges  Romanae  Regum  Barbaronim,  and,  although  they  do 
not  contain  Roman  law  in  an  uncontaminated  form,  they 
are,  in  a  varying  degree,  of  importance  for  the  understand- 
ing of  the  law  prior  to  Justinian  and  the  history  of  the  text 
of  certain  sources  outlined  below,  since  they  have  pre- 
served some  material  which  would  otherwise  have  been  lost. 

(«)  Lex  Romana  Visigothonim,  called  also  Breviarium 
Alaricianum,  a  code  published  by  King  Alaric  II  in  506 
for  the  Roman  subjects  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom.  It 
contained  excerpts  from  the  Institutes  of  Gaius,  the  Sen- 
tentiae  of  Paulus,  the  Codex  Gregorianus,  the  Codex  Her- 
mogenianus,  the  Codex  Theodosianus,  the  post-Theodosian 
Novellae,  and  a  Responsum  of  Papinian.  The  Institutes 
of  Gaius  were  incorporated  in  this  Code  in  an  abridgment, 
which  had  been  made  for  the  purposes  of  instruction,  and 
the  first  knowledge  of  the  work  was  gained  from  this 
source.  It  furnished  also  the  text  of  the  Sententiae  of 
Paulus  (see  below,  §  22,  c}.  Edition,  Hanel,  Lex  Romana 
VisigotJiorum,  Leipzig,  1849. 

(b)  Edictum  Theodorici,  or  the  Lex  Romana  Ostrogotho- 
rum,  a  code  published  by  Theodoric  the  Great  for  his 
Roman  and  Ostrogothic  subjects,  soon  after  512.  It  con- 
tained an  independent  presentation  of  law  drawn  from  the 
Codex  Gregorianus,  the  Codex  Hermogenianus,  the  Codex 
Theodosianus,  the  post-Theodosian  Novellae,  the  Senten- 
tiae of  Paulus,  and  other  sources  of  Roman  law.  Edi- 
tion, Bluhme,  Monumenta  Germaniae  Leges,  V,  pp.  145  ff. 
Hannover,  1875. 

29 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

(V)  Lex  Romana  Burgiuidionmn,  a  code  published  by 
the  king  of  the  Burgundians  for  the  Roman  subjects  of  the 
Burgundian  kingdom  sometime  about  512.  It  contained, 
in  an  independent  form,  law  taken  from  Roman  sources 
worked  over  with  Burgundian  elements  into  the  form  of  a 
code.  The  Roman  sources  drawn  upon  were  the  Codex 
Gregorianus,  the  Codex  Hermogenianus,  the  Codex  Theo- 
dosianus,  the  post-Theodosian  Novellae,  the  Institutes  of 
Gaius,  and  the  Sententiae  of  Paulus.  Edition,  Bluhme, 
Monumenta  Germaniae  Leges,  III,  pp.  579  ff.  Hannover, 
1863. 

SOURCES   OF   INFORMATION   FOR   THE   STUDY   OF 
ROMAN   LAW 

The  preceding  paragraphs  have  traced  briefly  the  sources 
from  which  the  Roman  law  originated,  and  the  agencies  by 
which  it  was  expanded  and  reduced  to  a  system.  There 
have  been  noticed  also  the  attempts  to  bring  the  great  mass 
of  law  into  a  more  available  form,  by  collections  and  codes, 
and  finally  the  great  achievement  of  the  Emperor  Justinian 
in  reducing  the  law  to  the  form  in  which  it  was  handed 
down  to  the  modern  world. 

It  now  remains  to  mention  briefly  the  sources  extant  and 
available  at  the  present  day  for  the  study  of  Roman  law, 
and  also  to  indicate  some  of  the  books  in  which  these 
sources  may  be  most  conveniently  found. 

20.  The  Extant  Sources  of  Roman  Law  in  their  Original 
Form.  —  The  material  extant  in  original  form  falls  into  two 
groups :  the  Corpus  luris  Civilis  and  the  pre-Justinian 
sources,  which  have  been  transmitted  in  various  ways. 

The  account  of  the  origin  and  general  character  of  the 

3° 


INTRODUCTION 

several  parts  of  the  Corpus  luris  has  been  given  above 
(§§  12  ff.).  The  most  authoritative  edition  is  that  of 
Mommsen,  Kruger  and  Scholl  (editio  stereotypa).  It  is 
published  in  three  volumes,  of  which  Vol.  I  contains  the 
Institutes  and  the  Digest,  /th  ed.,  Berlin,  1895  ;  Vol.  II 
contains  the  Codex,  6th  ed.,  Berlin,  1895 ;  and  Vol.  Ill  con- 
tains the  Novellae,  ist  ed.  begun  in  1880  and  completed  in 
1895.  Of  this  monumental  work,  the  Digest  was  edited 
by  Theodor  Mommsen,  the  Institutes  and  Codex  by  Paul 
Kruger,  a,nd  the  Novellae  by  Rudolf  Scholl  (completed 
after  his  death  by  Wilhelm  Kroll).  There  is  no  ancient, 
single  Ms.  of  the  entire  Corpus  htris.  The  edition  of  D. 
Gothofredus,  1583,  was  the  first  to  print  the  whole  body  of 
the  law  of  Justinian  as  a  single  book  with  the  title  Corpus 
luris  Civilis.  The  editions  are  very  numerous,  and  it  has 
been  said  that  no  other  book,  except  the  Holy  Bible,  has 
been  printed  so  often. 

Of  the  Institutes,  the  best  separate  text  editions  are  those 
of  Kruger,  Berlin,  1900  (the  latest  and  most  critical),  and 
Huschke,  Leipzig,  1878,  in  the  Teubner  series.  Some 
other  editions,  with  notes  or  commentary,  are:  J.  B. 
Moyle,  Imperatoris  lustiniaui  Institutionum  Libri  Quat- 
tuor,  Vol.  I,  text,  introduction,  notes,  and  various  excur- 
suses; Vol.  II,  English  translation,  Oxford,  3d  ed.,  1896; 
T.  C.  Sandars,  The  Institutes  of  Justinian,  with  introduc- 
tion, text,  translation,  and  notes,  containing  at  the  end  a 
summary  of  the  principal  contents  of  the  text  and  notes, 
arranged  in  a  methodical  form,  8th  ed.,  London  and  New 
York,  1888  ;  J.  Ortolan,  Explication  Historiqtie  des  Instituts 
de  I'Empereur  Justinien,  avec  le  texte,  la  traduction  en 
regard  et  les  commentaires  sous  cJiaque  paragraplie,  2  vols., 
1 2th  ed.,  Paris,  1883;  E.  Schrader,  Corpus  luris  Civilis, 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Vol.  I,  containing  the  Institutes,  with  valuable  commen- 
tary, Berlin,  1832. 

21.  The  Pre-Justinian  Sources. — These  sources  are  of 
several  kinds,  transmitted  in  different  ways.     The  more 
important  are  :  the  writings  of  jurists  in  their  original  form  ; 
the  remains  of  collections  and  codes  in  their  original  form; 
the  constitutions  of  the  emperors  in  their  original  form  ;  the 
statutes  and  popular  enactments  in  their  original  form  ; 
other  documents  and  records  of  legal  transactions  written 
on  various  materials  ;  and  the  information  supplied  by  lay 
writers  in  the  literature  of  Rome.     These  various  sources 
will  be  noticed  in  the  order  indicated. 

22.  The  Writings  of  Jurists.  —  The  bulk  of  the  extant 
literature  of  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Empire  (the  so- 
called  classical  period)  has  been  transmitted  through  the 
Digest  of  Justinian.     Excerpts  from  some  of  the  greatest 
jurists  of  this  period  have  been  preserved  in  the  remains 
of   the   collections    noticed    above  (§    n);    but  there  are 
several  more  or  less  fragmentary  works,  or  parts  of  works, 
of   jurists  which   have   been    transmitted*  in    some    cases 
directly  and  in  their  original  form,  in  other  cases  indirectly 
and  in  an  altered  text.     The  more  important  of  these  are 
noticed  below,  and  first,  those  emanating  from  the  classical 
period :  — 

{a)  Gaii  institutionum  commentarii  qnattnor,  discovered 
by  Niebuhr,  in  1816,  at  Verona,  in  a  palimpsest  of  about 
the  fifth  century.  This  work  is  by  far  the  most  complete 
and  important  of  these  sources.  It  was  before  this  known 
only  from  an  abridgment  of  it  (epitome  Gaii}  contained  in 
the  Lex  Romana  Visigothorum.  The  Institutes  of  Gaius 
were  a  model  for  the  compilers  of  the  Institutes  of  Jus- 
tinian. Large  portions  of  Gaius  were  taken  over  bodily 

32 


INTRODUCTION 

into  the  later  work,  often  with  mere  verbal  alterations. 
Facts  regarding  the  origin,  personal  history,  and  even  the 
name  of  the  author  of  this  work,  commonly  called  "  Gains," 
are  unknown.  The  purpose  of  the  book  is  not  definitely 
known.  It  was  possibly  intended  as  an  elementary  text- 
book for  the  use  of  students  beginning  their  studies  in  the 
law  school.  It  was  composed  about  161  A.D.,  and  it  gives, 
in  a  simple  and  clear  style,  a  systematic  presentation  of  the 
law  of  that  period.  The  first  edition  was  prepared  by 
Goschen,  under  commission  from  the  Prussian  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1820.  The  most  critical  reproduction  of  the 
Ms.  has  been  published  by  W.  Studemund,  with  the  title 
Gaiiinstitutionum  commentarii  qnattuor.  Codicis  Veronen- 
sis  deuuo  collati  apograpJium,  Leipzig,  1874.  Corrections 
and  additions,  derived  from  subsequent  examinations  of  the 
Ms.,  have  been  incorporated  in  the  latest  and  most  critical 
text  edition,  that  of  Kriiger  and  Studemund,  4th  ed., 
Berlin,  1899  (Vol.  I  of  the  Collectio,  see  below,  §  29).  The 
Teubner  text  of  Huschke  is  far  less  authoritative.  An 
excellent  English  edition  is  that  of  E.  Poste,  Gait  Institu- 
tionum  luris  Civilis  Cotnmcntarii  Quattuor,  with  translation 
and  commentary,  Oxford,  3d  ed.,  1890. 

(6)  Vlpiani  liber  singularis  regularum,  usually  called 
the  Fragments  of  Ulpian,  discovered  by  Jean  Dutillet  in 
1540,  in  a  Ms.  of  the  tenth  century,  then  in  his  own  pos- 
session, now  in  the  Vatican.  About  one  third  of  the  book 
is  missing  at  the  end.  Its  style  is  characterized  by  an 
admirable  brevity,  clearness,  and  precision  in  the  treatment 
of  the  most  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  private  law.  The 
fragment  forms  part  of  Vol.  II  of  the  Collectio,  see  below. 

(c)  Pauli  libri  quinqiie  sententiarum  ad  filium,  usually 
called  the  Sententiae  of  Paulus.  This  work  was  contained 

ROMAN  LAW  —  3  33 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

in  the  Lex  Romana  VisigotJiornm  (see  above,  §  19,  a)  and, 
owing  to  its  indirect  transmission,  is  in  a  less  genuine  and 
uncontaminated  form  than  the  Fragments  of  Ulpian.  The 
omissions  have  been  partly  supplied  by  passages  found  in 
other  extant  sources,  e.g.  the  Digest,  the  Collatio,  and  the 
Fragmenta  Vaticana.  The  book  contains  a  survey  of  the 
most  important  principles  of  the  private  law,  briefly  stated 
and  intended  for  practical  use.  It  forms  part  of  Vol.  II 
of  the  Collectio. 

(a)  Several  minor  fragments,  giving  information  on  sin- 
gle subjects  or  points,  rather  than  any  connected  survey  of 
the  law,  have  been  transmitted.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  more  noteworthy:  (i)  Notae  inris,  of  the  grammarian 
Valerius  Probus  (lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  first 
century),  containing  an  explanation  of  abbreviations  em- 
ployed in  statutes,  edicts,  decrees  of  the  senate,  etc.,  e.g. 
V.D.P.R.L.P.,  that  is,  unde  de  piano  recte  legi  possit  (see 
note  on  latam,  p.  46).  The  authoritative  recension  is  that 
of  Mommsen  in  Keil's  Grammatici  Latini,  IV,  pp.  265  f., 
given  by  Kriiger  in  Vol.  II,  pp.  141  f.  of  the  Collectio. 
(2)  Fragmcntnm  de  iure  fisci,  discovered  by  Niebuhr  in 
Verona  simultaneously  with  the  Ms.  of  Gains.  Its  author- 
ship is  uncertain.  The  fragment  is  found  in  the  Collectio, 
Vol.  II,  p.  162.  (3)  Fragment  inn  Dosithcanum  de  Manumis- 
sionibtis,  a  part  of  a  schoolbook  of  the  year  207  A.D.  The 
master,  Dositheus,  set  before  his  Greek-speaking  pupils, 
as  an  exercise  in  translation,  a  passage  from  some  Ro- 
man jurist.  The  text  is  in  the  form  of  a  retranslation 
from  Greek  back  into  Latin,  with  the  crudities  of  school- 
boy exercises  in  translation.  Found  in  the  Collectio,  Vol. 
II,  p.  149.  (4)  Fragmcntnm  de  formula  Fabiana,  a  parch- 
ment fragment  discovered  in  Egypt  and  first  published 

34 


INTRODUCTION 

in  1888.  In  it  occurs  the  formula  Fabiana,  but  the  work, 
of  which  the  fragment  formed  a  part,  and  its  authorship 
are  unknown.  Found  in  the  Collectio,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  299. 
(5)  Papiniani  responsornm  fragmcnta,  badly  mutilated  frag- 
ments of  the  fifth  and  ninth  books  of  Papinian's  Responsa, 
recovered  from  an  Egyptian  parchment  in  1876.  Found 
in  the  Collectio,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  285. 

23.  Pre-Justinian  Sources  of  the  Post-classical  Period. 
—  Of  these  sources,  some  proceeded  from  the  Western, 
and  some  from  the  Eastern,  Roman  Empire.  Of  the 
former  are :  — 

(a)  Fragnicnta  Vaticana,  discovered  by  Cardinal  Mai  in 
1821,  in  a  palimpsest  of  the  Vatican  library,  containing 
somewhat  extensive  remains  of  a  large  collection  of  ex- 
cerpts from  juristic  writings  and  imperial  constitutions 
(see  §  ii  above).  Found  in  the  Collectio,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  i. 

(fr)  Collatio  Icgum  Mosaicarum  ct  Romanarnm,  containing 
excerpts  from  Gaius,  Papinian,  Paulus,  Ulpian,  Modes- 
tinus,  and  constitutions  from  the  Gregorian  and  Hermoge- 
nian  codes.  The  purpose  of  the  author  in  making  this 
parallel  comparison  of  the  Roman  and  Mosaic  law  is  vari- 
ously explained,  but  it  was  probably  done  merely  to  show 
the  many  points  of  identity  in  the  two  systems.  Found  in 
the  Collectio,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  107  (see  §  n  above). 

(c)  Consultatio,  etc.  (see  §  1 1  above),  a  fragment  of  a 
collection  of  opinions  on  questions  of  law,  dating  from  the 
end  of  the  fifth  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century. 
The  work  probably  originated  in  Gaul,  where  the  single 
Ms.  was  discovered.  Found  in  the  Collectio,  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  199.  From  the  Eastern  Empire  are:  — 

(^)  Scholia  Sinaitica,  papyrus  fragments  discovered  on 
Mt.  Sinai,  containing  scholia  on  Ulpian's  Libri  ad  Sabi- 

35 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

num,  written  between  439  and  529.  Found  in  the  Col- 
lectio,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  265. 

(i)  Leges  Constantini,  Theodosii,  et  Leonis,  or  a  collec- 
tion of  Syrio-Roman  law,  found  in  Mss.  in  the  Syrian, 
Arabic,  and  other  Oriental  languages,  probably  made  from 
one  Greek  original,  and  dating  from  the  years  between 
472  and  529.  As  an  exposition  of  Roman  law  it  is  of  lit- 
tle value.  The  authoritative  edition,  with  translation  and 
commentary,  is  by  Bruns  and  Sachau,  with  the  title,  Das 
Syrisch-Romische  RecJitsbucJi,  Leipzig,  1880. 

24.  Extant  Remains  of  Pre-Justinian  Constitutions.  — 
The  imperial  constitutions,  known  either  in  their  original 
phraseology,  through  independent  transmission,  or,  in  sub- 
ject-matter, through  their  preservation  in  other  sources, 
are  numbered  by  the  thousands.  These  cannot  be  men- 
tioned here  in  detail.  Some  have  been  preserved  by  in- 
scriptions, others  by  their  interpretation  and  elaboration  in 
the  writings  of  jurists  and  lay  writers,  still  others  in  the 
remains  of  codes  and  collections.  A  collection  of  pre- 
Justinian  constitutions  is  that  of  Hanel,  Corpus  Legum 
ab  Imperatoribus  Romanis  ante  lustinianum  Latarum, 
Leipzig,  1857.  Information  regarding  the  Gregorian  and 
Hermogenian  codes  is  derived  from  the  use  made  of  them 
by  later  works,  e.g.  Lex  Romana  Visigothorum,  Collatio, 
Consnltatio,  etc.  For  these  codes  the  best  edition  of  the 
remains  is  that  of  Kriiger,  Collectio,Vo\.  Ill,  p.  221.  For 
the  Theodosian  Code,  there  is  no  good  Ms.,  but  frequent 
gaps  have  been  filled  from  later  works,  which  drew  from 
that  source.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Hanel,  cited  above. 
For  the  post-Theodosian  Novellae  the  edition  is,  Hanel, 
Novellae  Constitutiones  Tmperatorum,  etc.,  Bonn,  1844  (a 
part  of  Hand's  Corpus  Legum  mentioned  above).  Some 

36 


INTRODUCTION 

of  the  more  important  edicts  and  rescripts  preserved  in 
inscriptions  are  given  by  Bruns,  Fontes  (see  below,  §  29). 

25.  The  Remains  of  the  Leges  Regiae  and  the  Twelve 
Tables.  —  The  fragments  of  the  so-called  leges  regiae,  to- 
gether with  a  citation  of  all  the  literary  references  to  them, 
are  given  by  Bruns,  Fontes,  pp.  1-15.    Since  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  attempts  have  been  made  to  ar- 
range the  extant  fragments  of  the  Twelve  Tables  in  their 
original  order.     The  modern  text  was  practically  estab- 
lished by  Dirksen,  1824.     The  work  of  Dirksen  was  im- 
proved by  the  more  searching  philological  criticism  of  R. 
Scholl,   1867.     A  text  of   these  fragments,  based  on  the 
recensions  of  Dirksen  and  Scholl,  together  with  the  cita- 
tion of   all  the  literary  references   to   them,  is  given  by 
Bruns,  pp.  15-40. 

26.  The  Extant  Remains  of  Popular  Enactments,  Edicts, 
and  Decrees  of  the  Senate.  —  Of  the,  leges  en  acted  subsequent 
to  the  Twelve  Tables  only  a  few  have  been  transmitted  inde- 
pendently and  in  their  original  form.     Information  regard- 
ing by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  leges  (including  plebiscite^) 
has  been  obtained   entirely  from   the    literature.     Those 
transmitted  in  their  original  phraseology  in  inscriptions 
are   given,   in   convenient   form,   by    Bruns,    pp.   45—160, 
accompanied   by  notes  on  the  history  of   their  recovery, 
their  present  place  of  preservation,  and  a  citation  of  the 
literature  bearing  on  their  interpretation.     Of  the  lists  of 
leges  made  by  modern  scholars,  those  of  Rudorff,  Romische 
Rechtsgeschichte,  I,  §§  10-44,  and  Lange,  Romische  Alter- 
tiimer,  II,  3,  §§    132-133,  arrange  the  individual  statutes 
according  to  their  subject-matter;   while  those  of   Orelli- 
Baiter,    Onomasticon    Tullianum,   III,   pp.   117  f.  (Vol.  8 
of  Orelli's  Cicero),  and  Rein,  in  Pauly's  Real-Encyclopddie, 

37 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN*   LAW 

IV,  pp.  956  f.,  arrange  them  in  alphabetical  order. 
Information  regarding  the  contents  of  the  edicts  of  the 
praetors  is  derived  from  the  literature.  Considerable 
knowledge  of  the  Edict um  Perpetuitm,  compiled  by  Salvius 
Julianus  under  Hadrian,  is  derived  from  the  writings  of  the 
jurists  excerpted  in  the  Digest.  Attempts  to  reconstruct 
this  work  began  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  latest  and 
best  attempt  is  the  brilliant  work  by  Lenel,  Das  Edictum 
Perpetuum,  Leipzig,  1883,  given  also  by  Bruns,  pp.  202  ff. 
Information  regarding  the  decrees  of  the  senate  is  ob- 
tained chiefly  from  the  literature.  Some  have  also  been 
transmitted  independently  in  the  inscriptions.  These  are 
given  in  convenient  form  by  Bruns,  pp.  160-202. 

27.  Legal  Documents  of  a  Private  Character.  — Valuable 
sources,  which  contribute  to  the  understanding  of  the  law, 
are  the  documents  and  private  instruments  preserved  and 
transmitted  through  wax  tablets,  papyri  (in  recent  times, 
especially,  coming  to  light  in  great  numbers),  and  inscrip- 
tions.    These  documents  give  glimpses  of  the  application 
of  the  law  to  concrete  cases  or  preserve  records  of  legal 
transactions,  which  illustrate  the  requirements  of  law  in 
much  detail  in  the  various  forms  of  contracts,  in  the  exe- 
cution and  opening  of  wills,  in  matters  of  procedure,  and 
in  the  commonest  legal  relations  of  the  everyday  life  of 
the  people.     These  documents  are  well  illustrated  in  the 
selections  made  by  Bruns,  pp.  270  ff. 

28.  The  Non-juristic  Literature.  —  Among  the  sources  of 
information  for  the  study  of  Roman  law  must  be  taken  into 
consideration  almost  the  entire  body  of  non-juristic  litera- 
ture, including  those  Greek  authors  who  treat  of  Roman 
history  and   institutions.     In  Latin,  the  works  of    Cicero 
are  the  most  fruitful.     Gellius  furnishes  much  information 

38 


INTRODUCTION 

in  matters  of  public  and  private  law.  In  public  law  and 
constitutional  matters,  Livy  and  the  other  historians  con- 
tribute most.  The  rhetoricians  and  grammarians  furnish 
useful  material.  In  certain  subjects  information  is  drawn 
from  the  agricultural  writers,  —  Cato,  Varro,  Columella. 
Even  the  poets  and  the  commentators  on  the  poets,  espe- 
cially Donatus  on  Terence,  Servius  on  Vergil,  and  the  scholia 
of  Aero  and  Porphyrio  on  Horace  furnish  information  on 
matters  of  detail.  Plautus  makes  numerous  references  to 
matters  of  a  legal  character,  using  business  and  legal  terms 
with  great  frequency.  Owing,  however,  to  the  uncertain 
relation  of  his  plays  to  their  Greek  originals,  the  plays  of 
Plautus  cannot  be  considered  unreservedly  as  contributing 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  early  law  of  Rome.  A  valuable 
little  book  showing  the  references  to  legal  matters  in  the 
works  of  the  non-juristic  Latin  authors  is  Precis  des  Insti- 
tutions du  Droit  Privt  de  Rome,  by  Gaston  May  and  Henri 
Becker,  Paris,  1892.  A  few  of  the  many  books  of  this 
character,  devoted  either  to  single  authors  or  to  classes  of 
authors,  are,  for  Plautus,  E.  Costa,  //  Diritto  Privato 
Romano  (in  the  comedies  of  Plautus),  Turin,  1890;  for 
Cicero,  F.  Keller,  Semcstrium  ad  M.  Tullium  Ciceronem 
libri  tres,  Zurich,  1842;  Gasquy,  Cice"rpn  Jurisconsulte, 
Paris,  1887;  Roby,  Roman  Private  Law,  Vol.  2  (Appen- 
dix), Cambridge,  1902;  for  the  poets,  Henriot,  Mosurs  juri- 
diqnes  et  judiciaires  de  Vancienne  Rome  d'aprh  Ics  poetes 
latins,  Paris,  1865  ;  Benech,  Sur  les  classiqucs  latins  (Hor- 
ace, Persius,  Martial,  Juvenal),  Paris,  1853. 

29.  Books  of  Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Besides  the 
Corpus  luris  Civilis  some  of  the  books  referred  to  above  as 
giving  extant  sources  in  a  convenient  form  are  Mommsen, 
Kriiger  and  Studemund,  Collectio  librorum  iuris  anteinsti- 

39 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

niani,  3  vols.,  Berlin,  1878—1899;  Huschke,  lurisprudentiae 
anteiustinianae  quae  supersunt,  Leipzig,  1886.  These  two 
works  contain  the  extant  remains  of  the  pre-Justinian 
literature.  The  former  offers  the  more  critical  and  authori- 
tative text,  while  the  latter  is  more  convenient,  being  in 
one  volume.  It  has  also  useful  indices  and  a  valuable 
collection  of  parallel  passages.  Bruns,  Fontcs  iuris  Romani 
antiqni,  6th  ed.,  by  Mommsen  and  Gradenvvitz,  Freiburg 
and  Leipzig,  1893.  This  book  gives  the  most  important 
legal  monuments  which  have  been  transmitted  in  inscrip- 
tions, and  also  a  collection  of  documents  illustrating  private 
legal  transactions.  Lenel,  Palingeuesia  iuris  civilis,  2 
vols.,  Leipzig,  1888-1889,  a  restoration  of  the  excerpts  of 
the  classical  jurists  to  their  original  connection.  The 
style  of  each  individual  writer  is  best  seen  from  the  use 
of  this  very  valuable  book.  Corpus  iuris  anteinstiniani, 
etc.,  Bonn,  1842,  a  collection  of  pre-Justinian  sources 
edited  by  a  number  of  professors  at  Bonn. 


40 


INTRODUCTORY   NOTE   TO    POMPONIVS,   D.  i. 
2.  2,    DE   ORIGINS   IVRIS 

1.  The  following  selection  by  Sextus  Pomponius  on  the 
origin  and  development  of  Roman  law,  the  history  of  the 
magistracies  and  the  most  important  jurists  of  Rome  from 
the  earliest  time  to  his  own  day,  is  a  fragment  of  a  work 
by  that  author  preserved  in  Justinian's  Digest.     Works  on 
the  history  of  the  development  of  law  apparently  received 
but  little  attention  from  Roman  juristic  writers.     The  im- 
portance of  this  fragment  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  furnishes 
the  only  historical  account  of  Roman  law  transmitted  to 
modern  times,  and  that  it  was  considered  of  sufficient  im- 
portance by  the   compilers   of   Justinian's    Digest   to   be 
placed  as  an  opening  chapter,  introducing  law  students  to 
the  study  of  that  work. 

2.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  personal  history  of  Pom- 
ponius ;  but  the  period  in  which  he  flourished  is  clearly 
established  by  the  extant   fragments    of   his  works.     He 
wrote  under  the  reigns  of  Hadrian,  Antoninus  Pius,  and 
Marcus  Aurelius. 

3.  The  Manual  (liber  singtilaris  enchiridii\  of  which  this 
selection  formed  a  part,  was  written  in  the  reign  of  Ha- 
drian ;  the  last  jurist  mentioned  in  its  enumeration  of  law 
writers  and  teachers  being  the  celebrated  Salvius  Julianus, 
who   flourished   under    Hadrian    and    prepared,    by   that 
emperor's  direction,  the  Edictum  Perpetuum. 

4.  Pomponius  was  the  most  voluminous  juristic  writer  of 
the  second  century  of  the  Empire.     Although  he  was  the 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE    RDM  AN    LAW 

author  of  numerous  works  covering  various  departments 
of  the  law,  he  lacked  originality  and  independence  in 
scholarship.  He  was  not  a  jurist  of  the  first  rank,  but  he 
was  an  industrious  writer  of  commentaries  and  made  much 
use  of  the  literature  of  his  predecessors.  Of  the  few 
authors  whose  works  were  drawn  upon  extensively  in  the 
compilation  of  the  Digest,  Pomponius  stands  in  the  second 
group,  ranked  according  to  the  amount  of  material 
supplied. 

5.  Although  Pomponius  was  not  the  most  productive  of 
Roman  juristic  writers,  an  enumeration  of  his  works  will 
give  a  fair  idea  of  the  fertility  of  a  typical  Roman  lawyer :  — 

(1)  Libri  ex  Sabino,  a  commentary  in  36  books,  on  the 
ins  civile  according  to  the  arrangement  of  a  similar  work 
of  the  distinguished  jurist,  Massurius  Sabinus. 

(2)  Ad  edictnm  libri,  a  commentary  on  the  praetorian 
edict,  containing  at  least  83  books  (D.  38,  5,  I,  14.     The 
subject-matter  here  indicates  the  probability  of  almost  as 
many  more). 

(3)  Ad  Q.  Mucium  (Scacvolain)  lectionum  libri,  a  com- 
mentary in  39  books,  according   to  the  arrangement  of 
Mucius  in  his  treatise  on  the  ins  civile. 

(4)  Ex  Plantio  libri,  a  commentary  on  the  jurist  Plau- 
tius  in  7  books. 

(5)  Epistulanun  libri,  legal  opinions  in  epistolary  form 
in  20  books. 

(6)  Variae  Icctioncs,  miscellaneous  discussions  of  legal 
questions  in   15  books  (or  possibly  in  41  books). 

(7)  De  stipulationibns,  a  treatise  on   stipulations  in  at 
least  8  books. 

(8)  De  senatus   consultis   libri,   a  commentary  on   the 
decrees  of  the  senate  in  5  books. 

42 


INTRODUCTORY   NOTE 

(9)   Digestorwn  ab  Aristone  libri,  a  commentary  on  the 
Digest  of  Aristo  in  at  least  5  books. 

(10)  Fideicommissorum  libri,   a  work  on  testamentary 
trusts  in  5  books. 

(11)  Regnlarum  liber  singularis,  a  book  of  legal  defini- 
tions. 

(12)  Liber  singularis  enchiridii,  a  small   handbook  in- 
tended for  students,  of  which  the  following  fragment  is  all 
that  has  been  transmitted. 

6.  The  sources  for  this  historical  survey  are  unknown. 
Sanio  has  endeavored  to  show  that  Varro  was  Pomponius's 
chief  authority.     The  evidence  is,  however,  not  conclusive 

—  (  Varroniana  in  den  ScJiriften  der  rom.  Jnristen,  Leipzig, 
1867). 

7.  The  results  of  the  controversy  regarding  the  histori- 
cal value   of    the    fragment   may  be    stated   briefly :    the 
contributions  of  Pomponius  to  matters  contemporaneous  or 
approaching  his  own  day  are  of  great  worth ;  those  which 
concern  the   republican  period  and   the  earliest  develop- 
ments of  Roman  legal  science  are,  as  a  rule,  to  be  held  in 
suspicion. 

8.  The  selection  falls  into  three  subdivisions  :  — 

(1)  The  origin  and  development  of  Roman  law,  §§  1-12. 

(2)  The  magistrates  and  administration  of  law,  §§  13-34. 

(3)  The  most  important  jurists  and  their  works,  from 
the  beginning  of  Roman  jurisprudence  down  to  the  author's 
own  day,  §§  35-53. 


43 


DE   ORIGINE   IVRIS   ET   OMNIVM    MAGISTRATVVM   ET 
SVCCESSIONE   PRVDENTIVM 

Pompon.  D.        Necessarium  itaque  nobis  videtur  ipsius  iuris 
i-  2, 2,  pr.       originem  atque  processum  demonstrare. 

1.  Et  quidem  initio  civitatis  nostrae  populus  sine  lege 
certa,   sine  iure   certo    primum  agere   instituit   omniaque 

5  manu  a  regibus  gubernabantur. 

2.  Postea    aucta    ad    aliquem   modum   civitate    ipsum 
Romulum   traditur    populum   in   triginta  partes  divisisse, 
quas   partes  curias    appellavit   propterea,    quod   tune    rei 

i.   nobis  :    the    name    of    the  people   were    governed    by    local 

author  and  the  title  of  the  work  customs  rather  than  by  law. 
from   which  the  excerpt  is   made          5.    manu:     with    discretionary 

stand  at  the  beginning  of  each  lex  authority.      The  tradition    repre- 

(or  fragment)  in  the  Digest,  and  sents    the    kings    as    ruling    with 

hence  the  personal  style  frequently  absolute  authority,    although    the 

occurs.     Cf.  Introd.  15.  institutions    of    the    period    were 

3.  sine  lege  ...  sine  iure :  with-  those  of  self-government.     In  the 
out  definite  statute  or  customary  monarchy,  as  in  the  republic,  the 
law.     For  the  meaning  of  lex  and  people  were  the  ultimate  source  of 
ius   in  this   place,   see   Introd.    I  political  power. 

and  2,  also  notes  on  iustitia,  p.  72  8.   curias :    not  connected  ety- 

and  ex  nan,  p.  73.  mologically  with  cura.     The  true 

4.  agere     instituit:     began    to  origin    of    the     word     is    uncer- 
Kve,  i.e.  at   this  early  period  the  tain.      Other    instances    of   false 

45 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


[§3 


publicae  curam  per  sententias  partium  earum  expediebat. 
Et  ita  leges  quasdam  et  ipse  curiatas  ad  populum  tulit, 
tulerunt  et  sequentes  reges.  Quae  omnes  conscriptae 
exstant  in  libro  Sexti  Papirii,  qui  fuit  illis  temporibus, 

5  quibus  Superbus  Demarati  Corinthii  filius,  ex  principalibus 
viris.  Is  liber,  ut  diximus,  appellatur  ius  civile  Papiri- 
anum,  non  quia  Papirius  de  suo  quicquam  ibi  adiecit,  sed 
quod  leges  sine  ordine  latas  in  unum  composuit. 

3.    Exactis   deinde  regibus  lege  tribunicia  omnes  leges 

10  hae  exoleverunt  iterumque  coepit  populus  Romanus  incerto 
magis  hire  et  consuetudine  aliqua  uti  quam  per  latam 
legem,  idque  prope  viginti  annis  passus  est. 


etymologies  found  in  legal  writers 
are  :  miituum.  as  if  from  meotunin  ; 
testamentum,  from  testatio  mentis  ; 
servus,  from  servare.  Cf .  also  note 
on  quasi,  p.  106. 

2.  leges  .  .  .  tulit  :  proposed 
measures  for  the  enactment  of  the 
comitia  curiata.  It  was  a  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  constitu- 
tion that  law-making  required  the 
cooperation  of  the  people  and  the 
king  or  magistrate.  The  king, 
therefore,  is  not  law-giver,  but, 
having  the  sole  right  of  initiative, 
he  is  in  a  position  to  control  legis- 
lation. For  the  process  of  passing 
a  lex,  see  note  on  latam  legem 
below. 

6.  ius ...  Papirianum :  the  refer- 
ence  is  to  the  so-called  leges  regiae, 
cf.  Introd.  3.  The  statement  of 
the  text  that  the  ius  Papirianum 
was  a  collection  of  leges  curiatae 
which  lost  their  validity  after  the 


overthrow  of  the  Tarquins,  is  not 
supported  by  any  other  author. 
The  title  of  this  work  as  "  ius  civile 
Papirianum  "  is  also  an  invention 
of  Pomponius,  cf.  Serv.  Aen.  12. 
836,  where  the  work  is  referred  to 
as  de  ritu  sacrorum,  a  title  giving 
an  indication  of  the  real  contents 
of  the  book. 

ii.  latam  legem:  the  various 
steps  in  the  process  of  enacting 
a  statute  (/<?.r).were  as  follows  :  — 

1 I )  Legis  latio,  the  preparation 
and   presentation   of  a   bill  by  a 
magistrate  (legem  ferre  ad  popu- 
htm).     The  proposer  was    called 
legis  lator,  auctor  legis,  or  suasor 
legis.     The  bill  must  be  published 
at  least  three  market  days  (per  tri- 
niim  nundinum)  before  it  could  be 
submitted  to  an  assembly  for  a  vote. 

(2)  Legis   rogatio,   the   magis- 
trate's formal   submission   of  the 
bill  for  acceptance  or  rejection  by 


46 


§4] 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


4.  Postea  ne  diutius  hoc  fieret,  placuit  publica  auctori- 
tate  decem  constitui  viros,  per  quos  peterentur  leges  a 
Graecis  civitatibus  et  civitas  fundaretur  legibus,  quas 
in  tabulas  eboreas  perscriptas  pro  rostris  composuerunt, 
5  ut  possint  leges  apertius  percipi,  datumque  est  eis  ius 
eo  anno  in  civitate  summum,  uti  leges  et  corrigerent,  si 
opus  esset,  et  interpretarentur  neque  provocatio  ab  eis 
sicut  a  reliquis  magistratibus  fieret.  Qui  ipsi  animadverte- 


the  vote  of  the  assembly.  The 
formula  for  the  introduction  of  a 
rogatio  was  :  Velitis,  hibeatis  hoc, 
Qnirites,  Rogo.  The  people  voted 
at  once,  by  curiae,  centuries,  or 
tribes  ;  during  the  early  Republic, 
viva  voce ;  after  about  139  B.C.,  by 
ballot  (tabella).  Affirmative  bal- 
lots were  inscribed  VR  (uti 
rogas)  ;  negative  ballots,  A  (an- 
tiqud) . 

(3)  Remmtiatio.      The   result 
of  the   ballot  was   announced   at 
once,  and  if  more  than  one  half 
of  the  ballots  were  affirmative,  the 
rogatio  became  a  lex  (lex  perlata, 
perrogata*) . 

(4)  Publicatio  legis.     After  the 
enactment   of  a  lex,  it  was   pub- 
lished   on    whitewashed    wooden 
tablets    or    copper   plates    (legem 
figere,  unde  de  piano   recte  legi 
possif).     The  validity  of  the  law 
was  not,  however,  dependent   on 
the   fact  of  publication,  since   all 
citizens,  in  theory,  had  taken  part 
in  its  enactment. 

4.    eboreas :  this  is  evidently  a 
mistake  of  the  copyist.     Roboreas 


and  aereas  have  been  suggested. 
Ivory  belongs  rather  to  the  luxury 
of  the  Empire.  Laws  were  usu- 
ally published  on  stone,  copper, 
or  wooden  tablets ;  the  Twelve 
Tables,  according  to  the  tradition, 
on  copper.  —  pro  rostris  :  used 
for  the  Forum.  The  term  ros- 
tra was  not  in  use  until  after 
the  capture  of  the  Latin  fleet  at 
Antium,  338  B.C.  (Liv.  8,  14, 
12).  For  the  Decemvirate  and 
the  Twelve  Tables,  see  Liv. 
3,  31  f.,  and  Dion.  Bk.  10,  also 
Introd.  4. 

5.  ius  summum:  supreme  au- 
thority. 

7.  provocatio  ab  eis,  sc.  De- 
cemviris:  such  magistrates,  elected 
for  a  special  purpose,  the  Romans 
called  magistratus  extraordinarii. 
By  a  lex  Valeria  (B.C.  509?)  every 
sentence  of  a  magistrate  against 
the  life  of  a  Roman  citizen  might 
be  appealed  to  the  people.  Under 
the  monarchical  and  republican 
constitution  of  Rome,  the  par- 
doning power  was  an  attribute  of 
the  people's  sovereignty. 


47 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


[§5 


runt  aliquid  deesse  istis  primis  legibus  ideoque  sequent! 
anno  alias  duas  ad  easdem  tabulas  adiecerunt  et  ita  ex 
accedenti  appellatae  sunt  leges  duodecim  tabularum. 
Quarum  ferendarum  auctorem  fuisse  decemviris  Hermo- 
5  dorum  quendam  Ephesium  exulantem  in  Italia  quidam 
rettulerunt. 

5.  His  legibus  latis  coepit  (ut  naturaliter  evenire  solet, 
ut  interpretatio  desideraret  prudentium  auctoritatem)  ne- 
cessariam  esse  disputationem  fori.  Haec  disputatio  et  hoc 
10  ius,  quod  sine  scripto  venit  compositum  a  prudentibus, 
propria  parte  aliqua  non  appellatur,  ut  ceterae  partes  iuris 
suis  nominibus  designantur,  datis  propriis  nominibus  ceteris 
partibus,  sed  communi  nomine  appellatur  ius  civile. 


2.  duas  ad  easdem  tabulas 
adiecerunt:  Cicero  calls  these 
two  tables  iniquae  leges,  because 
they  '  forbade  intermarriage  be- 
tween patrician  and  plebeian,' 
probably  therein  simply  confirm- 
ing the  previous  customary  law. 
—  ex  accedenti :  i.e.  by  addition 
of  these  two  to  the  ten  tables 
published  in  the  previous  year. 
The  first  ten  tables  were  ratified 
by  the  comitia  centuriata  when 
proposed  by  the  Decemviri.  The 
remaining  two  were  submitted  to 
the  comitia  by  the  consuls,  after 
the  overthrow  of  the  second  De- 
cemvirate. 

4.  auctorem :  Hermodorus  is 
called  by  Pliny,  N.  H.  34,  5,  21, 
interpres.  He  further  says  that 
a  statue  was  erected  to  Hermo- 
dorus in  the  Forum  at  public  ex- 
pense. 


8.  desideraret  :      required.  — 
disputationem  fori :    the  responsa 
delivered  in  writing  to  the  court 
by  the   advocates   led  to  contro- 
versy and  discussion  of  principles. 
This  was  conducive  to  the  devel- 
opment of  a  scientific  law  litera- 
ture.    The  professional  duties  of 
the  American   lawyer  were  regu- 
larly  performed   at  Rome,  partly 
by  the  iuris  consulti,  iuris  pru- 
dentes,  who   were  trained  jurists, 
and  partly  by  the   advocati,  ora- 
toreSj  who  were  professional  plead- 
ers, but  were  not  reckoned  among 
the  jurists ;    cf.   the   English  so- 
licitor and   barrister. 

9.  Haec    disputatio   .   .   .   ap- 
pellatur   ius    civile :     '  interpreta- 
tions  of   the  law   came   to    have 
authority   as   unwritten   law,   and 
so  were  eventually  recognized  as 
a  source  of  law  (jurist-made  law), 


48 


§§  6-;]       SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


6.  Deinde  ex  his  legibus  eodem  tempore  fere  actiones 
compositae  sunt,  quibus   inter  se    homines    disceptarent : 
quas  actiones  ne  populus  prout  vellet  institueret,  certas 
sollemnesque  esse  voluerunt  et  appellatur  haec  pars  iuris 

5  legis  actiones,  id  est  legitimae  actiones.  Et  ita  eodem 
paene  tempore  tria  haec  iura  nata  sunt ;  lege  duodecim 
tabularum  ex  his  fluere  coepit  ius  civile,  ex  isdem  legis 
actiones  compositae  sunt.  Omnium  tamen  harum  et  inter- 
pretandi  scientia  et  actiones  apud  collegium  pontificum 
10  erant,  ex  quibus  constituebatur,  quis  quoquo  anno  praeesset 
privatis.  Et  fere  populus  annis  prope  centum  hac  consue- 
tudine  usus  est. 

7.  Postea    cum    Appius    Claudius    proposuisset   et   ad 
formam  redegisset  has  actiones,  Gnaeus  Flavins  scriba  eius 


but  they  did  not  receive  a  distinct 
name  as  did  the  praetorian  law 
(ius  honorarium,  ius  praetorium}, 
the  term  ius  civile  being  regarded 
as  including  the  law  growing  out 
of  scientific  interpretation.'  Like 
the  praetorian  edict,  this  iuris 
prudentia  became  a  -viva  vox 
iuris  civilis.  Cf.  Introd.  8. 

i.  ex  his  legibus:  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  long  before  the 
Twelve  Tables,  procedure  and 
legal  transactions  were  character- 
ized by  definitely  prescribed  and 
formal  words  of  style.  Although 
originally  a  natural  growth,  the 
legis  actiones  were  developed  by 
the  pontiffs,  who  gave  them  a 
technical  character,  requiring  at 
first  their  own  professional  inter- 
pretation. Of  these  actiones,  as 
genera  agendi,  there  were  five. 

ROMAN  LAW  —  4  49 


See  Sohm,  Institutes  of  Roman 
Law  (Eng.  trans.),  Oxf.,  1892, 
p.  152. 

6.  lege:  the  reading  is  doubt- 
ful. Mommsen  proposes  after 
nata  sunt,  lataque  lege,  abl.  abs. 
The  meaning  is :  so  there  arose 
almost  at  the  same  time  these 
three  parts  of  the  law  :  the  Twelve 
Tables ;  from  these  flowed  the  ius 
civile ;  and  likewise  from  these 
were  developed  the  legis  actiones. 

13.  Appius  Claudius  Caecus 
(censor  312)  :  he  was  not  a  pon- 
tiff himself,  as  his  elogium  shows 
(C.  I.  L.,  I,  p.  287)  ;  but  careful 
observation  of  the  pontiffs'  method 
of  procedure  in  various  cases  en- 
abled him  to  prepare  the  work 
published  by  Flavius.  This  pub- 
lication of  the  calendar  and  the 
actiones,  which  had  hitherto  been 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


[I 


libertini  filius  subreptum  librum  populo  tradidit,  et  adeo 
gratum  fuit  id  munus  populo,  ut  tribunus  plebis  fieret  et 
senator  et  aedilis  curulis.  Hie  liber,  qui  actiones  continet, 
appellatur  ius  civile  Flavianum,  sicut  ille  ius  civile  Papiri- 

5  anum,  nam  nee  Gnaeus  Flavius  de  suo  quicquam  adiecit 
libro.  Augescente  civitate  quia  deerant  quaedam  genera 
agendi,  non  post  multum  temporis  spatium  Sextus  Aelius 
alias  actiones  composuit  et  librum  populo  dedit,  qui  appel- 
latur ius  Aelianum. 

io  8.  Deinde  cum  esset  in  civitate  lex  duodecim  tabularum 
et  ius  civile,  essent  et  legis  actiones,  evenit,  ut  plebs  in  dis- 
cordiam  cum  patribus  perveniret  et  secederet  sibique  iura 
constitueret,  quae  iura  plebiscita  vocantur.  Mox  cum 


the  secret  of  the  patricians,  oc- 
curred about  304  B.C.,  and  practi- 
cally completed  the  work  of  making 
the  two  orders  equal  before  the 
law.  The  Twelve  Tables  had 
published  a  large  part  of  the  law, 
but  the  legal  remedies  were  still 
within  the  control  and  subject  to 
the  manipulation  of  the  patrician 
pontiffs.  This  work  of  Flavius  is 
the  first  literary  effort  in  Roman 
jurisprudence.  It  is  probable  that, 
owing  to  the  political  character  of 
Appius  Claudius  and  his  active 
demagogism  against  the  patri- 
cians, this  book  was  not  published 
against  his  will  (subrepluni)  ;  cf. 
Mommsen,  Romische  Forschungen, 
I,  301,  or  the  same  article  in  his 
Roman  History,  I,  Appendix  I 
(Eng.  trans.).  —  proposuisset :  the 
connection  shows  that  this  word 
does  not  have  its  usual  meaning  of 


publish,  exhibit  in  a  public  place, 
but  draw  up,  collect,  in  the  sense 
of  composuisset. 

6.  Augescente  civitate :  with 
the  new  legislation  after  the 
Twelve  Tables,  new  actiones  were 
required.  The  ius  Flavianum 
dealt  only  with  the  law  of  the 
Tables.  The  work  of  Aelius  in- 
dicated what  old  remedies  were 
still  in  force,  and  made  known 
the  new  ones  required  by  more 
recent  legislation.  Ius  Aelianum 
was  published  about  204  B.C. 

13.  plebiscita  :  bills  passed  by 
the  assembly  of  the  plebeians, 
organized  by  tribes  (concilium 
plebis},  when  the  rogatio  (cf. 
Introd.  8)  was  submitted  by  the 
plebeian  tribune ;  cf.  definition, 
p.  75  of  text.  Concilium  plebis 
(an  assembly  composed  of  ple- 
beians only)  should  not  be  con- 


5° 


§§  9-io]     SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

revocata  est  plebs,  quia  multae  discordiae  nascebantur  de 
his  plebiscitis,  pro  legibus  placuit  et  ea  observare  lege 
Hortensia,  et  ita  factum  est,  ut  inter  plebiscita  et  legem 
species  constituendi  interesset,  potestas  autem  eadem 

5  esset. 

9.  Deinde  quia  difficile  plebs  con  venire  coepit,  populus 
certe  multo  difficilius  in  tanta  turba  hominum,  necessitas 
ipsa  curam  rei  publicae  ad  senatum  deduxit,  ita  coepit 
senatus  se  interponere  et  quidquid  constituisset  observaba- 

10  tur,  idque  ius  appellabatur  senatus  consultum. 

10.  Eodem  tempore  et  magistratus  iura  reddebant  et  tit 
scirent  cives,  quod  ius  de  quaque  re  quisque  dicturus  esset, 
seque  praemunirent,  edicta  proponebant.  Quae  edicta 


fused  with  cot  nit ia  tributa  (an 
assembly  of  the  entire  populus 
according  to  tribal  organization). 
By  the  lex  Hortensia,  287  B.C. 
the  laws  passed  by  the  concilium 
plebis  were  binding  upon  the 
whole  populus.  Before  that  law, 
plebiscita  were  binding  upon  ple- 
beians only,  unless,  when  they 
affected  the  whole  state,  they  were 
ratified  by  the  comitia  centuriata 
(or  possibly  by  the  senate  alone). 
After  the  Hortensian  law,  the  only 
difference  between  plebiscita  and 
leges  was  in  form  and  name ; 
their  force  was  identical.  Cicero 
was  banished  by  a  plebiscitmn 
and  recalled  by  a  lex.  With  true 
Roman  precision  in  legal  matters, 
enactments  were  often  called  lex 
plebeive  scitum  or  lex  sive  id  plebi 
scituin  est. 


10.  senatus  consultum :  a  bill 
which  passed  the  senate  without 
eliciting  the  veto  of  a  magistrate. 
See  Introd.  6  and  definition,  p.  75 
of  the  text.  The  senate  was  in 
theory  an  advisory  body  of  the 
king  in  the  monarchy,  and  of  the 
consuls  in  the  republic.  During 
the  best  days  of  the  republic,  the 
leges  passed  by  the  comitia  re- 
quired the  sanction  of  the  patrician 
part  of  the  senate  {auctoritas  pa- 
tnim).  In  the  late  republican 
period,  the  senate  issued  decrees 
in  cases  of  emergency,  which  seem 
to  have  had  the  force  of  law.  In 
the  early  empire,  the  decrees  of  the 
senate  supplanted  the  leges  of  the 
comitia.  Under  the  regime  where- 
by the  power  was  divided  between 
princeps  and  senate,  SCC  were 
counted  among  the  sources  of  law. 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW     [§§  11-12 

praetorum  ius  honorarium  constituerunt ;  honorarium  dici- 
tur,  quod  ab  honore  praetoris  venerat. 

11.  Novissime  sicut  ad  pauciores  Juris  constituendi  vias 
transisse    ipsis    rebus   dictantibus   videbatur    per    partes, 

5  evenit,  ut  necesse  esset  rei  publicae  per  unum  consuli  (nam 
senatus  non  perinde  omnes  provincias  probe  gerere  pote- 
rat);  igitur  constitute  principe  datum  est  ei  ius,  ut  quod 
constituisset,  ratum  esset. 

12.  Ita  in  civitate  nostra  aut  iure,  id  est  lege,  constitui- 
10  tur,  aut  est  proprium  ius  civile,  quod  sine  scripto  in  sola 

prudentium  interpretatione  consistit,  aut  sunt  legis  actiones, 
quae  formam  agendi  continent,  aut  plebiscitum,  quod  sine 
auctoritate  patrum  est  constitutum,  aut  est  magistratuum 
edictum,  unde  ius  honorarium  nascitur,  aut  senatus  consul- 
15  turn,  quod  solum  senatu  constituente  inducitur  sine  lege, 


i.  ius  honorarium :  see  Introd. 
5  and  definition,  p.  76  of  the 
text. 

3.  Novissime  :  '  finally,  inas- 
much as  it  seemed  that  the  devel- 
opment of  the  law  had  gradually 
passed  under  the  control  of  fewer 
persons,  circumstances  themselves 
partially  calling  for  it,  it  came 
about  now  that  the  necessity  of 
caring  for  the  welfare  of  the  state 
devolved  upon  one  man.' 

6.  non   perinde,   sc.   ac  dim: 
not  as  formerly,  cf.  Tac.  Germ.  5, 
4,  hand  perinde  afficiuntur ;  Suet. 
Aug.  80,  non  perinde  valebat. 

7.  ius :     '  authority   was   con- 
ferred upon  him   (by  the  lex  de 
imperio)  so  that  whatever  he  or- 
dained was  valid  (as  law).' 


9.  iure,  id  est  lege  :  '  our  state 
is  therefore  governed  by  the  old 
customary  law  as  it  stands  in  the 
Twelve  Tables,  or  that  peculiar  ius 
civile,  which  is  unwritten  and  rests 
upon  the  interpretation  of  the  ju- 
rists.'  Cf.  note  on  Haec  disputatio, 
p.  48,  and  definitions,  p.  75  of  the 
text. 

10.  proprium  ius  civile :  it  was 
a  peculiar  feature  of  Roman  legal 
development,    that    interpretation 
of  the  jurists  and  legal  literature 
attained  a  place  of  such  great  im- 
portance and,  without  any  consti- 
tutional recognition,  were  counted 
by  the  jurists  among  the  sources 
of  law. 

12.   formam   agendi:  rules  of 
procedure. 


52 


§§  13-16]     SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

aut  est  principalis  constitutio,  id  est  ut  quod  ipse  princeps 
constituit  pro  lege  servetur. 

13.  Post  originem  iuris  et  processum  cognitum  conse- 
quens  est,  ut  de  magistratuum  nominibus  et  origine  cognos- 

5  camus,  quia,  ut  exposuimus,  per  eos  qui  iuri  dicundo  praesunt 
effectus  rei  accipitur  ;  quantum  est  enim  ius  in  civitate  esse, 
nisi  sint,  qui  iura  regere  possint  ?  Post  hoc  dein  de  aucto- 
rum  successione  dicemus,  quod  constare  non  potest  ius, 
nisi  sit  aliquis  iuris  peritus,  per  quern  possit  cottidie  in 

10  melius  produci. 

14.  Quod  ad  magistratus  attinet,  initio  civitatis  huius 
constat  reges  omnem  potestatem  habuisse. 

15.  Isdem  temporibus  et  tribunum  celerum  fuisse  con- 
stat.    Is  autem  erat  qui  equitibus  praeerat  et  veluti  secun- 

15  dum    locum    a   regibus    optinebat.     In    quo   numero    fuit 
lunius  Brutus,  qui  auctor  fuit  regis  eiciendi. 

16.  Exactis  deinde  regibus  consules  constituti  sunt  duo, 
penes  quos  summum  ius  uti  esset,  lege  rogatum  est.     Dicti 

6.  effectus  rei :  '  the  operation  writers'  authority  in  our  own  sys- 
of  the  law  is  perceived.1  —  quantum  tern  of  law  and  the  weight  of  a 
est  ius  esse:  'of  what  value  is  it  judicial    decision.)      Our    nearest 
that  there  is  law  in  a  state,  unless.'  parallel  to   the  responsa  pruden- 

7.  auctorum,     sc.    inris  :    ju-  tium  and  the  text-book  law  of  the 
rists,  cf.  Introd.  8.  Romans  is  the  series  of  Reported 

9.    iuris  peritus,  per  quern  pos-  Cases. 

sit  in  melius  produci:  the  Roman  13.   tribunum    celerum:    tradi- 

jurists    were    designated    by    the  tion  assigned  as  deputies  of  the 

terms  inris  periti,  iuris  prudentes,  king  and  subject  to  his  appoint- 

iuris  consulti,  iuris  auctores,  and  ment  three  or  nine  tribtmi  militum 

iuris  conditores  without  distinction  (Varro,  L.  L.  5,  81  ;  Serv.  Aen.  5, 

of  meaning.     It  is  a  peculiarity  of  560)  ;    nine    tribuni    celerum  ;   a 

the  Romans  that  they  set  a  very  praefectus  urbi  (Tac.  Ann.  6,  n  ; 

high   value    on    the   authority   of  Liv.  1,59;  Dion.  2,  12). 
jurists  and    their  writings.     (Cf.  18.    lege  rogatum:  declared  by 

the  comparative  absence  of  text-  a  law,  i.e.  the  lex  curiata  de  im- 

53 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW     [§§  17-18 

sunt  ab  eo,  quod  plurimum  rei  publicae  consulerent.  Qui 
tamen  ne  per  omnia  regiam  potestatem  sibi  vindicarent, 
lege  lata  f actum  est,  ut  ab  eis  provocatio  esset  neve  possent 
in  caput  civis  Romani  animadvertere  iniussu  populi.  Solum 

5  relictum  est  illis,  ut  coercere  possent  et  in  vincula  publica 
duci  iuberent. 

17.  Post  deinde  cum  census  iam  maiori  tempore  agendus 
esset  et  consules  non  sufficerent  huic  quoque  officio,  cen- 
sores  constituti  sunt. 

10  18.  Populo  deinde  aucto  cum  crebra  orerentur  bella  et 
quaedam  acriora  a  finitimis  inferrentur,  interdum  re  exi- 
gente  placuit  maioris  potestatis  magistratum  constitui, 
itaque  dictatores  proditi  sunt,  a  quibus  nee  provocandi  ius 
fuit  et  quibus  etiam  capitis  animadversio  data  est.  Hunc 

15  magistratum,  quoniam  summam  potestatem  habebat,  non 
erat  fas  ultra  sextum  mensem  retineri. 

perio.     Cf.  note  on  latani  legein,  in   certain    criminal    matters,  e.g. 

p.  46  ;  Cic.  de  Leg.  Agr.  2,  10,  26;  they    condemned   women,   aliens, 

ad  Fatn.  i,  9,  25;  de  Rep.  2,  13,  and  slaves,  and  caused   the   sen- 

25.  —  ab  eo  =  ob  earn  rein.     The  tence  to  be  carried  into  execution, 

idea   of  colleagueship    (con-saliot  They   retained    civil   jurisdiction, 

con-sules,  partners)  as  a  check  on  until  the  office  of  Praetor  Urbanus 

the  abuse  of  imperittm,  probably  was  established, 

accounts  for  the  origin  of  the  name.  8.    censores     constituti     sunt: 

3.   ab   eis  provocatio :    the  /;//-  the    censorship    was     established 

perium  gave  the  consuls  absolute  about  443  B.C.     It  was  originally 

authority  in  military  jurisdiction.  the  duty  of  the  censor  to  determine 

This  power  was  restricted  by  the  the  military  strength  of  the  state 

lex  Valeria  (about  B.C.   509),  so  at  certain  intervals.     All  citizens 

that  in  capital  cases  within  the  city  were    registered    in   their  proper 

walls  an  appeal  lay  from  them  to  class,  according   to   their  wealth, 

the  people ;  hence  the  distinction  and  on  the  basis  of  this  census 

between  imperium  dotni  and  ///;-  military    duties    and    taxes    were 

perium  militiae,  and  fasces  with  imposed. 

and  without  secures.     The  consuls  15.    non  erat  fas  ultra  sextum 

retained  an  exceptional  authority  mensem    retineri :    fas  —  ius,  as 

54 


§§  1 9-21]     SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


19.  Et  his  dictatoribus  magistri  equitum  iniungebantur 
sic,  quo  modo  regibus  tribuni  celerum.  Quod  officium  fere 
tale  erat,  quale  hodie  praefectorum  praetorio,  magistratus 
tamen  habebantur  legitimi. 

5  20.  Isdem  temporibus  cum  plebs  a  patribus  secessisset 
anno  fere  septimo  decimo  post  reges  exactos,  tribunes  sibi 
in  monte  sacro  creavit,  qui  essent  plebeii  magistratus. 
Died  tribuni,  quod  olim  in  tres  partes  populus  divisus  erat 
et  ex  singulis  singuli  creabantur,  vel  quia  tribuum  suffragio 
10  creabantur. 

21.  Itemque  ut  essent  qui  aedibus  praeessent,  in  quibus 
omnia  scita  sua  plebs  deferebat,  duos  ex  plebe  constitu- 
erunt,  qui  etiam  aediles  appellati  sunt. 


often.  A  longer  term  of  office 
suggested  the  possibility  of  a  re- 
turn to  monarchy.  The  dictator's 
imperium  was  originally  unre- 
stricted domi  as  well  as  militiae. 
He  administered  martial  law  within 
the  city  and  had  full  military,  but 
not  civil,  jurisdiction.  The  prae- 
tors continued  to  sit  in  their  courts, 
the  consuls  were  continued  in 
command  of  their  armies  as 
minor  colleagues  of  the  dictator, 
and  other  magistrates  continued 
in  office. 

7.  plebeii  magistratus  :  for 
the  origin  of  the  tribunate  of  the 
plebs  see  the  sources,  Liv.  2,  33  ; 
Dion.  6,  89  ;  Isidor.  Or  iff.  9,  3, 
29;  Lydus,  de  Magistr.  i,  38,  44. 
The  tribuni  plebis  were  at  first 
two,  then  four,  and  afterwards  ten 
in  number.  They  had  the  right 
of  intercession,  within  the  pome- 


rium,  against  every  expression  of 
magisterial  authority,  limited  only 
by  the  veto  of  their  colleagues  and 
the  provocatio  to  the  comitia  cen- 
turiata  in  capital  cases.  After 
the  lex  Hortensia,  the  tribunes 
could  initiate  legislation  (plebis- 
citd)  and  could  eventually  sum- 
mon the  senate. 

13.  aediles  appellati  sunt :  the 
origin  of  this  name  is  uncertain. 
The  derivation  of  the  word  is  as- 
signed by  Pomponius  to  the  aediles1 
duty  of  keeping  the  archives  in 
their  custody  in  the  temple  of 
Ceres,  by  Varro  to  their  oversight 
of  the  repair  of  temples,  '  aedilis, 
qui  aedes  sacras  et  privatas  pro- 
curaret,'  L.  L.  5,  81  (see  Momm- 
sen,  Staatsrecht,  2,  p.  479).  Their 
original  title  and  function  were 
possibly  something  still  different 
(Dion.  6,  90). 


55 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW     [§§  22-24 

22.  Deinde  cum  aerarium  populi  auctius  esse  coepisset, 
ut  essent  qui  illi  praeessent,  constituti  sunt  quaestores,  qui 
pecuniae  praeessent,  died  ab  eo  quod  inquirendae  et  con- 
servandae  pecuniae  causa  creati  erant. 

5  23.  Et  quia,  ut  diximus,  de  capite  civis  Romani  iniussu 
populi  non  erat  lege  permissum  consulibus  ius  dicere,  prop- 
terea  quaestores  constituebantur  a  populo,  qui  capitalibus 
rebus  praeessent ;  hi  appellabantur  quaestores  parricidii, 
quorum  etiam  meminit  lex  duodecim  tabularum. 

10  24.  Et  cum  placuisset  leges  quoque  ferri,  latum  est  ad 
populum,  uti  omnes  magistratu  se  abdicarent,  quo  decem- 
viri constituti  anno  uno  cum  magistratum  prorogarent  sibi 
et  cum  iniuriose  tractarent  neque  vellent  deinceps  sufficere 
magistratibus,  ut  ipsi  et  factio  sua  perpetuo  rem  publicam 

15  occupatam  retineret,  nimia  atque  aspera  dominatione  eo 
rem  perduxerant,  ut  exercitus  a  re  publica  secederet.  Ini- 
tium  fuisse  secessionis  dicitur  Verginius  quidam,  qui  cum 
animadvertisset  Appium  Claudium  contra  ius,  quod  ipse  ex 


3.   inquirendae  et  conservandae  12.    prorogarent.  .  .  neque  vel- 

pecuniae  causa :    cf.  Varro,  L.  L.  lent  sufficere  magistratibus :  '  held 

5,81, 'quaestores  a  quaerendo,  qui  over  for  one  year  .  .  .  and  were 

conquirerent  publicas  pecunias  et  unwilling  to  give  way  to  the  regular 

maleficia.'     The  functions  of  the  magistrates.' 

quaestores  aerarii  and  parricidii,  18.    contra  ius,  quod  ipse  in  duo- 

usually  identified,  are  here  regarded  decim  tabulas  transtulerat :  cf.  Liv. 

as  distinct.  3,  44,  ad-vocati  (  Verginiae)  postu- 

ii.    quo  decemviri,  supply  crea-  lant,ut(App.  Claudius)  lege  ab 

rentur  legum  scribendarum  causa.  ipso  lata  vitidicias  det  secundum 

Hague   decemviri    constituti:    as  liber  tatem.       Vindicias  ab  aliquo 

something  has  evidently  dropped  abdicere  means  to  refuse  one  pos- 

out    (Mommsen).      Quo  without  session,  vindicias  dicere  secundum 

the  comparative,  A.  &  G.  317,  b,  aliquem,  to  grant  one  possession 

N.  2 ;  B.  282,  a.    Anno  uno,  abl.  of  the  disputed  person  or  thing, 

degree  of  difference.  during    the    adjudication    of  the 


§  25]  SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

vetere.  iure  in  duodecim  tabulas  transtulerat,  vindicias  filiae 
suae  a  se  abdixisse  et  secundum  eum,  qui  in  servitutem  ab 
eo  suppositus  petierat,  dixisse  captumque  amore  virginis 
omne  fas  ac  nefas  miscuisse,  indignatus,  quod  vetus- 
5  tissima  iuris  observantia  in  persona  filiae  suae  defecisset 
(utpote  cum  Brutus,  qui  primus  Romae  consul  fuit,  vindi- 
cias secundum  libertatem  dixisset  in  persona  Vindicis  Vitel- 
liorum  servi,  qui  proditionis  coniurationem  indicio  suo 
detexerat)  et  castitatem  filiae  vitae  quoque  eius  praefer- 

10  endam  putaret,  arrepto  cultro  de  taberna  lanionis  filiam  in- 
terfecit  in  hoc  scilicet,  ut  morte  virginis  contumeliam  stupri 
arceret,  ac  protinus  recens  a  caede  madenteque  adhuc  filiae 
cruore  ad  commilitones  confugit.  Qui  universi  de  Algido, 
ubi  tune  belli  gerendi  causa  legiones  erant,  relictis  ducibus 

15  pristinis  signa  in  Aventinum  transtulerunt,  omnisque  plebs 

urbana  mox  eodem  se  contulit,  populique  consensu  partim  in 

carcere  necati.    Ita  rursus  res  publica  suum  statum  recepit. 

25.    Deinde  cum  post  aliquot  annos  duodecim  tabulae 

latae  sunt  et  plebs  contenderet  cum  patribus  et  vellet  ex 

issue.    The  legal  wrong  here  arose  2.   qui   (i.e.   Icilius)  in   servi- 

from  a  direct  violation  of  a  pro-  tutem  ab  eo  (i.e.  A  pp.  Claudius) 

vision     of    the     Twelve    Tables,  suppositus  petierat :    had  claimed 

namely,  that  in  case  of  disputed  her  as  a  slave. 

freedom  (liberalis  causa)  the  pre-  4.   indignatus,    sc.     Verginius. 

sumption  should   be  in  favor  of  —  vetustissima  iuris  observantia, 

liberty     (secundum     libertatem).  i.e.    vindicias    dicere    secundum 

Verginius  was,  therefore,  deprived  libertatem. 

unlawfully  of  the  possession  of  his  10.      putaret,      read      putans 

daughter,  over  whom,  as  his  _/?//#-  (Mommsen). 

famtlias,  he  had  a  real  right,  un-  16.   partim  in  carcere  necati : 

til   Appius    proved    his    right   of  after  partim    supply    in    exilium 

proprietorship  (dominica  potestas)  acti  decemviri,  partim,  etc. 

and  the  claim  had  been  judicially  18.    Deinde  cum   post  aliquot : 

determined.  read  annos,  quam  duodecim  tabu- 

57 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW      [§§  26-27 

suo  quoque  corpore  consules  creare  et  patres  recusarent, 
factum  est,  ut  tribuni  militum  crearentur  partim  ex  plebe, 
partim  ex  patribus  consular!  potestate.  Hique  constituti 
sunt  vario  numero,  interdum  enira  viginti  fuerunt,  interdum 

5  plures,  nonnumquam  pauciores. 

26.  Deinde  cum  placuisset  creari  etiam  ex  plebe  con- 
sules, eoeperunt  ex  utroque  corpore  constitui.  Tune,  ut 
aliquo  pluris  patres  haberent,  placuit  duos  ex  numero 
patrum  constitui ;  ita  facti  sunt  aediles  curules. 

[o  27.  Cumque  consules  avocarentur  bellis  finitimis  neque 
esset  qui  in  civitate  ius  reddere  posset,  factum  est,  ut  prae- 
tor quoque  crearetur,  qui  urbanus  appellatus  est,  quod  in 
urbe  ius  redderet. 


lae  latae  snnt,  plebs  contenderet, 
etc.,  according  to  the  suggestion 
of  Mommsen. 

2.  tribuni  militum  consular! 
potestate :  in  445  B.C.  the  plebe- 
ians demanded  that  the  consulate 
be  opened  to  their  order.  The 
patricians  declined  to  give  their 
assent,  but  yielded  to  a  com- 
promise, by  which  the  people 
should  determine  each  year 
whether  they  preferred  consuls  or 
military  tribunes  with  consular 
power.  This  was  a  makeshift  for 
opening  the  highest  magistracy  to 
the  plebeians,  without  altering  the 
framework  of  the  constitution  or 
suffering  from  further  revolution. 
The  tribunes  consulari  potestate 
were  always  more  than  two  in 
number,  never  more  than  six  (not 
twenty  as  the  text  says),  and  the 
office  passed  away  with  the  admis- 


sion of  the  plebeians  to  the  con- 
sulship (367  B.C.). 

7.  ut  aliquo  pluris  (sc.  inris, 
'power')  patres  haberent,  placuit 
duos  (sc.  magistrates)  ex  numero 
patrum  constitui,  sc.  qui  ludos 
citrarent,  or  something  of  the  kind, 
which  possibly  has  fallen  out. 
The  office  of  curule  aedile,  whose 
original  duties  are  uncertain,  was 
created  in  366  B.C.  as  an  offset  to 
the  plebeian  aedileship.  The 
duties  of  these  officers,  at  first  dis- 
tinct, became  practically  assimi- 
lated. There  were  two  of  each 
kind. 

1 1 .  praetor  crearetur :  the  name 
was  originally  applied  to  the  con- 
suls (prae-ztores,  leaders,  com- 
manders) .  As  only  a  single  praetor 
was  appointed,  the  constitutional 
principle  of  colleagueship  in  all 
magistracies  was  not  observed. 


§§  28-30]      SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

28.  Post  aliquot  deinde  annos  non  sufficiente  eo  praetore, 
quod  multa  turba  etiam  peregrinorum  in  civitatem  veniret, 
creatus  est  et  alius  praetor,  qui  peregrinus  appellatus  est 
ab  eo,  quod  plerumque  inter  peregrines  ius  dicebat. 

29.  Deinde    cum    esset    necessarius    magistratus    qui 
hastae   praeessent,    decemviri    in    litibus    iudicandis   sunt 
constituti. 

30.  Constituti  sunt  eodem  tempore  et  quattuorviri  qui 
curam  viarum  agerent,  et  triumviri  monetales  aeris  argenti 


Theoretically,  however,  the  prae- 
tor was  regarded  as  a  third  consul, 
added  to  that  college  to  relieve 
the  consuls,  who  were  busy  in  the 
field,  of  their  judicial  duties.  The 
praetor  continued  to  be  the  sole 
civil  magistrate  in  Rome  until  the 
appointment  of  the  praetor  pere- 
grinus, a  century  and  a  quarter 
later.  The  original  praetor  was 
called  praetor  urbanus,  i.e.  praetor 
qui  inter  cives  ius  dicit ;  in  distinc- 
tion from  him,  the  new  praetor 
came  to  be  known  at  a  later  time  as 
praetor  peregrinus,  an  abbreviated 
title  for  the  praetor  qui  inter  pere- 
grinos  his  dicit  or  qui  inter  cives 
et  peregrines  ius  dicit. 

i.  Post  aliquot  annos:  ali- 
quot, meaning  usually  'a  few,1 
covers  here  an  interval  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  years.  The 
necessity  for  the  creation  of  this 
new  office  arose  from  the  changed 
conditions  resulting  from  the  first 
Punic  war.  The  date  of  its  es- 
tablishment is  uncertain,  assigned 
by  Liv.  to  242  B.C.,  by  Lydus  to 


244,  and  placed  by  modern  author- 
ities at  242  or  247.  The  full  title 
as  shown  by  the  inscriptions  is 
as  given  above  (note  on  praetor, 
p.  58),  cf.  also  Introd.  5. 

5.  qui  hastae  praeessent:  'to 
have  jurisdiction  in  cases  involv- 
ing real  rights  '  {e.g.  liberty,  prop- 
erty), cf.  Gai.  4,  i6,festuca  autem 
utebantur  quasi  hastae  loco,  signo 
quodam  iusti  dominii,  quod  ma- 
xime  sua  esse  credebant  quae  ex 
hostibus  cepissent ;  unde  in  cen- 
titmiiiralibus  iudiciis  hasta  prae- 
ponitur  (cf.  in  English  law  the 
delivery  of  a  staff  as  symbol  of 
power  and  possession  in  certain 
conveyances,  Blackstone,  Com- 
mentaries, II,  Chap.  20).  The 
decemviri  (st}litibus  iudicandis 
were  first  mentioned  in  the  Valerio- 
Horatian  laws,  449  B.C.  Owing 
to  the  restrictions  placed  on  the 
plebeians,  contests  over  personal 
liberty  became  prominent  and  re- 
quired a  special  tribunal  (cf.  case 
of  Verginia,  note  on  contra  ius, 
p.  56). 


59 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW     [§§  31-32 

auri  flatores,  et  triumviri  capitales  qui  carceris  custodiam 
haberent,  ut  cum  animadvert!  oporteret  interventu  eorum 
fieret. 

31.  Et  quia  magistratibus  vespertinis  temporibus  in  pub- 
5  licum  esse  inconveniens  erat,  quinqueviri  constituti  sunt  cis 

Tiberim  et  ultis  Tiberim,  qui  possint  pro  magistratibus 
fungi. 

32.  Capta  deinde  Sardinia,  mox  Sicilia,  item  Hispania, 
deinde  Narbonensi  provincia  totidem  praetores,  quot  pro- 

10  vinciae  in  dicionem  venerant,  crcati  sunt,  partim  qui  urbanis 
rebus,  partim  qui  provincialibus  praeessent.  Deinde  Cor- 
nelius Sulla  quaestiones  publicas  constituit,  veluti  de  falso, 
de  parricidio,  de  sicariis,  et  praetores  quattuor  adiecit. 
Deinde  Gaius  lulius  Caesar  duos  praetores  et  duos  aediles 

15  qui  frumento  praeessent  et  a  Cerere  cereales  constituit. 


i.  triumviri  capitales:  these 
were  introduced  about  289  B.C., 
and  they  exercised  criminal  au- 
thority over  aliens  and,  especially, 
slaves,  at  first  as  assistants  of  the 
consuls.  They  put  the  death  sen- 
tence into  execution,  acted  as  de- 
tectives in  criminal  investigations, 
exercised  police  duties,  etc.,  com- 
bined with  a  supervision  of  the 
night  watch. 

5.  quinqueviri  constituti  sunt 
cis  Tiberim :  originally,  at  Rome, 
the  duty  of  providing  for  the  public 
safety  and  policing  the  city  was  a 
part  of  the  consular  imperium.  In 
their  absence,  the  consuls  were  at 
first  represented  by  the  praefecti 
urbi,  afterward  by  the  praetor 
urbanus.  The  quinqueviri  Cisti- 


beres  had  similar  duties,  though 
their  exact  functions  cannot  now 
be  determined  (cf.  Mommsen, 
Slaatsrecht,  2,  611;  Hirschfeld, 
Hermes,  24,  106).  —  cis  Tiberim 
et  ultis  Tiberim  :  very  rare  for 
citra  .  .  .  ultra  ;  ultis  is  not  found 
in  Harper's  Lot.  Diet.  (cf.  cis  .  .  . 
u/s,  Varr.  L.  L.  5,  83). 

15-  et  (sc.  dicerentur)  a  Cerere 
cereales :  the  number  was  still  six 
in  the  time  of  Vespasian  (Suet. 
Vesp.  2),  i.e.  two  each  of  the  ple- 
beian, curule  (patrician),  and  the 
cereales  (instituted  by  Caesar). 
Some  of  the  chief  duties  of  the 
aediles  were  :  the  care  of  the  build- 
ings and  public  sites  of  the  city 
(euro,  urbis)  ;  the  care  of  the 
markets  (euro,  annonae)  •  the  es- 


60 


§§  33-34]     SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Ita  duodecim  praetores,  sex  aediles  sunt  creati.  Divus 
delude  Augustus  sedecim  praetores  constituit.  Post  de- 
inde  divus  Claudius  duos  praetores  adiecit  qui  de  fidei- 
commisso  ius  dicerent,  ex  quibus  unum  divus  Titus 
5  detraxit  et  adiecit  divus  Nerva  qui  inter  fiscum  et  pri- 
vatos  ius  diceret.  Ita  decem  et  octo  praetores  in  civitate 
ius  dicunt. 

33.  Et  haec  omnia,  quotiens  in  re  publica  sunt  magis- 
tratus,  observantur ;    quotiens  autem   proficiscuntur,  unus 

10  relinquitur,  qui  ius  dicat ;  is  vocatur  praefectus  urbi.  Qui 
praefectus  olim  constituebatur,  postea  fere  Latinarum  feri- 
arum  causa  introductus  est  et  quotannis  observatur.  Nam 
praefectus  annonae  et  vigilum  non  sunt  magistratus,  sed 
extra  ordinem  utilitatis  causa  constituti  sunt.  Et  tamen  hi, 

15  quos  Cistiberes  diximus,  postea  aediles  senatus  consulto 
creabantur. 

34.  Ergo  ex  his  omnibus  decem  tribuni  plebis,  consules 

tablishment  of  regular  games  (euro,  ius  diceret :  the  imperial  exchequer 

ludorutti).       Their    influence   on  (fiscus)  and  the  senatorial  aera- 

the  law  was  exerted  through  their  riutn  were  corporations,  i.e.  arti- 

criminal  and  civil  jurisdiction  and  facial    persons.     Issues   involving 

the  edicts  which  they  issued  in  the  claims    between    private    persons 

administration  of  their  office  (cf.  and  the  public  treasury  were  tried 

Introd.  5,  edictum  aediliciuiti).  by  the  praetor  fiscalis. 

3.   qui    de    fideicommisso    ius  8.   in  re  publica  :    used    here 

dicerent :  a  fideicommissutn  is  an  by   metonymy  (like  civitas  occa- 

informal  legacy  whose  terms  were  sionally)  for  in  urbe, 
to  be  carried  out  by  the  heir  in  good  10.    Qui  praefectus  olim  consti- 

faith  (fidei-committere)  according  tuebatur :    instead   of  praefectus, 

to  the  request  of  the  testator.    The  profectis  us  is  suggested,  i.e.  'for 

praetor     fideicommissarius    was  each  occasion  of  the  magistrates' 

charged   with    the    settlement    of  departure  from  the  city.' 
questions  growing  out    of   these  15.    postea    (sc.  per}    aediles, 

testamentary  trusts.  should  probably  be  read  (Momm- 

5.   qui  inter  fiscum  et  privates  sen). 

61 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW     [§§  35-36 

duo,  decem  et  octo  praetores,  sex  aediles  in  civitate  iura 
reddebant. 

35.  luris  civilis  scientiam  plurimi  et  maximi  viri  professi 
sunt ;  sed  qui  eorum  maximae  dignationis  apud  populum 

5  Romanum  fuerunt,  eorum  in  praesentia  mentio  habenda 
est,  ut  appareat,  a  quibus  et  qualibus  haec  iura  orta  et 
tradita  sunt.  Et  quiclem  ex  omnibus,  qui  scientiam  nancti 
sunt,  ante  Tiberium  Coruncanium  publice  professum  nemi- 
nem  traditur.  Ceteri  autem  ad  hunc  vel  in  latenti  ius  civile 

10  retinere  cogitabant  solumque  consultatoribus  vacare  potius 
quam  discere  volentibus  se  praestabant. 

36.  Fuit  autem  in  primis  peritus  Publius  Papirius,  qui 
leges  regias  in  unum  contulit.     Ab  hoc  Appius  Claudius 
unus  ex  decemviris,  cuius  maximum  consilium  in  duodecim 

15  tabulis  scribendis  fuit.  Post  hunc  Appius  Claudius  eiusdem 
generis  maximam  scientiam  habuit;  hie  Centemmanus  ap- 
pellatus  est,  Appiam  viam  stravit  et  aquam  Claudiam  induxit 
et  de  Pyrrho  in  urbe  non  recipiendo  sententiam  tulit.  Hunc 

3.    luris  civilis  scientiam  pro-  -them,  rather  than  to  those  wishing 
fessi  sunt :  with  this  section,  Pom-  to  study  law.1 
ponius  begins  the  enumeration  of  10.    solumque      consultatoribus 
some  of  the  most  famous  jurists,  vacare.    Instead  of  solumque  read  : 
with  mention  of  their  most  impor-  vel  solebant  consultatoribus,  etc. 
tant  works.     Juris  scientiam  pro-  12.    Publius  Papirius,  qui  leges 
fiteri  means  to  practice  and  also  regias  contulit :  in  the  second  see- 
to  give  instruction  in  law.     For  tion,    Papirius    is   called    Sextus. 
Ti.  Coruncanius   and   the  begin-  For  leges  regiae  see  Introd.  3  and 
ning  of  a  legal  profession  at  Rome,  note  on  ius  Papirianum,  p.  46. 
see  Introd.  8.  I5.    Post  hunc  App.  Claudius: 

9.   Ceteri  autem  ad  hunc,  etc.,  from  App.  Claudius,  the  Decemvir, 

translate:    'all  others  acquainted  Pomponius  springs  over  a  period 

with   law    up    to    his  time  either  of  about  150  years  to  the  Decem- 

intended    to    keep    the  ius  civile  vir's  great-grandson,   App.    Clau- 

unknown  or  else  were  usually  ac-  dius  Caecus  (censor  312)  ;  cf.  sec. 

cessible  only  to  those  consulting  7  of  the  text  and  note  on  App. 

62 


§§  37-38]     SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE   ROMAN  LAW 

etiam  actiones  scripsisse  traditum  est  primum  de  usurpa- 
tionibus,  qui  liber  non  exstat.  Idem  Appius  Claudius,  qui 
videtur  ab  hoc  processisse,  R  litteram  invenit,  ut  pro  Valesiis 
Valerii  essent  et  pro  Fusiis  Furii. 

5  37.  Fuit  post  eos  maximae  scientiae  Sempronius,  quern 
populus  Romanus  aoQov  appellavit,  nee  quisquam  ante 
hunc  aut  post  hunc  hoc  nomine  cognominatus  est.  Gains 
Scipio  Nasica,  qui  optimus  a  senatu  appellatus  est,  cui 
etiam  publice  domus  in  sacra  via  data  est,  quo  facilius  con- 

10  suli  posset.  Deinde  Quintus  Mucius,  qui  ad  Carthaginienses 
missus  legatus,  cum  essent  duae  tesserae  positae  una  pacis 
altera  belli,  arbitrio  sibi  dato,  utram  vellet  referret  Romam, 
utramque  sustulit  et  ait  Carthaginienses  petere  debere, 
utram  mallent  accipere. 

15  38.  Post  hos  fuit  Tiberius  Coruncanius,  ut  dixi,  qui 
primus  profited  coepit,  cuius  tamen  scriptum  nullum  exstat, 
sed  responsa  complura  et  memorabilia  eius  fuerunt.  Deinde 
Sextus  Aelius  et  frater  eius  Publius  Aelius  et  Publius  Ati- 
lius  maximam  scientiam  in  profitendo  habuerunt,  ut  duo 

20  Aelii  etiam  consules  fuerint,  Atilius  autem  primus  a  populo 
Sapiens  appellatus  est.  Sextum  Aelium  etiam  Ennius  lau- 
davit  et  exstat  illius  liber  qui  inscribitur  '  tripertita,'  qui 
liber  veluti  cunabula  iuris  continet.  Tripertita  autem  dici- 

Claudius,   p.   49,   supra.     In  this  7.   Gaius    Scipio    Nasica :    ap- 

section,  patricians  are  mentioned  parently  a  confusion  with  Publius 

in  violation  of  chronological  order.  Nasica  Optimus,  consul  191  B.C. 

i.    actiones  (scripsisse)  is  evi-  10.    Quintus  Mucius:   probably 

dentlyagloss  from  section  7.  intended  for  Q.  Maximus,  cf.  Liv. 

5.    Sempronius:     i.e.     Publius  21,  1 8,  where  a  similar  incident  is 

Sempronius    Sophus,   consul  304  related  (Florus,  2,  6,  7 ;  Cell.  10, 

B.C.     The  cognomen  Sophus  oc-  27). 

curs  several  times  in  the  fasti  con-  22.   liber  qui  inscribitur  triper- 

sidares.  tita  :  so  called  because  it  was  com- 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW  [§  39 


tur,  quoniam  lege  duodecim  tabularum  praeposita  iungitur 
interpretatio,  deinde  subtexitur  legis  actio.  Eiusdem  esse 
tres  alii  libri  referuntur,  quos  tamen  quidam  negant  eiusdem 
esse;  hos  sectatus  ad  aliquid  est  Cato.  Deinde  Marcus 

5  Cato  princeps  Porciae  familiae,  cuius  et  libri  exstant,  sed 
plurimi  filii  eius,  ex  quibus  ceteri  oriuntur. 

39.  Post  hos  fuerunt  Publius  Mucius  et  Brutus  et  Mani- 
lius,  qui  fundaverunt  ius  civile.  Ex  his  Publius  Mucius 
etiam  decem  libellos  reliquit,  Brutus  septem,  Manilius  tres 

10  et  exstant  volumina  scripta  Manilii  monumenta.  Illi  duo 
consulares  fuerunt,  Brutus  praetorius,  Publius  autem  Mucius 
etiam  pontifex  maximus. 


posed  of  three  parts  :  lex  tabularum 
duodecim ;  interpretatio  (of  the 
Tables)  ;  and  legis  actiones.  The 
ius  Flai'ianum  probably  formed 
the  third  part  of  this  work,  cf. 
notes  on  Appius,  p.  49  and  Auge- 
scente,  p.  50. 

4.  ad  aliquid  Cato.  Deinde 
Marcus  Cato:  it  is  suggested  by 
Scholl,  XII.  Tab.  p.  24,  that  the 
first  Cato  is  a  gloss,  ad  aliquid, 
adverbial,  after  some  time. 

6.  ex  quibus  ceteri  oriuntur  : 
read  ordiuntur  ('  nam  auctores 
posteriores  citant  passim  Cato- 
nem  neque  vero  auctorem  ullum 
eo  antiquiorem,  nisi  quod  semel 
laudat  Sex.  Aelium  Celsus,1  ex- 
plains Mommsen).  The  legal 
works  of  Cato  Censor  are  unknown, 
but  his  de  Re  Rustica  contains  im- 
portant information  on  the  law  of 
contracts.  His  son  is  the  author 
of  the  celebrated  regula  Catoniana 
(D.  34,  7,  i). 


7.  Post  hos  fuerunt :  Pompo- 
nius  omits  the  name  of  C.  Livius 
Drusus,  belonging  here  (consul 
144  B.C.),  the  author  of  several 
works  and  a  jurist  whose  advice 
was  much  sought,  of  whom  Val. 
Max.  8,  7,  4,  says  :  ius  civile  pop- 
ulo  benignissime  interpret  at  us  est 
utilissimaque  discere  id  cupientibus 
monumenta  composuit.  Cf.  also 
Cic.  Tusc.  5,  38,  112;  Brut.  28, 
109.  Of  the  three  jurists  men- 
tioned in  this  section,  the  oldest 
was  M'.  Manilius  (consul  149  B.C.), 
one  of  the  speakers  in  Cic.  de 
Rep.  and  the  author  of  seven  books 
(not  three).  M.  Junius  Brutus 
whom  Cic.  Brut.  34,  130,  calls  vi- 
riuii  optimum  et  iurisperitissimiim. 
was  the  author  of  three  books,  de 
iure  civili,  in  the  form  of  dialogue 
with  his  son,  in  imitation  of  Greek 
philosophical  writings.  P.  Mucius 
(Scaevola)  was  consul  133  B.C. 
Pomponius  does  not  mention  Mu- 


64 


§§  40-42]     SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


40.  Ab  his  profecti  sunt  Publius  Rutilius  Rufus,  qui 
Romae  consul  et  Asiae  proconsul  fuit,  Paulus  Verginius 
et  Quintus  Tubero,  ille  stoicus  Pansae  auditor,  qui  et  ipse 
consul.  Etiam  Sextus  Pompeius  Gnaei  Pompeii  patruus 
5  fuit  eodem  tempore  et  Coelius  Antipater,  qui  historias 
conscripsit,  sed  plus  eloquentiae  quam  scientiae  iuris  op- 
eram  dedit,  etiam  Lucius  Crassus  frater  Publii  Mucii,  qui 
Munianus  dictus  est ;  hunc  Cicero  ait  iuris  consultorum 
disertissimum. 

10  41.  Post  hos  Quintus  Mucius  Publii  films  pontifex  maxi- 
mus  ius  civile  primus  constituit  generatim  in  libros  decem 
et  octo  redigendo. 

42.    Mucii  auditores  fuerunt  complures,  sed  praecipuae 
auctoritatis  Aquilius  Callus,  Balbus  Lucilius,  Sextus  Papi- 


cius'  cousin,  Q.  Mucius  Scaevola, 
consul  117  B.C.,  commonly  called 
Augur,  whose  consultatio  Cicero  at- 
tended as  hearer  in  B.C.  89,  shortly 
before  Scaevola's  death,  Cic.  Lael. 
I,  i  ;  de  Leg.  1,4,  13.  The  Augur 
should  not  be  confused  with  the  far 
more  distinguished  jurist,  Q.  Mu- 
cius Scaevola,  Pontifex  Maximus, 
consul  95  B.C.,  mentioned  below. 

i.  Ab  his  profecti  sunt:  i.e. 
'  their  disciples.'  For  this  mean- 
ing of  proficisci,  cf.  Cic.  de  Div.  i, 
3?  5  ?  J)  35?  61.  Publius  Rutilius 
Rufus,  consul  105  B.C.,  was  distin- 
guished as  general,  statesman, 
orator,  historian,  and  legal  adviser 
(Cic.  Brut.  30,  113,  magnum  mu- 
nus  de  iure  respondendi  sustinuif) . 
He  was  not  proconsul  in  Asia,  but 
served  there  as  legatus  to  Q. 
Mucius  Scaevola. 

ROMAN  LAW  — 5  65 


3.  ille  stoicus  Pansae  auditor: 
i.e.  he  was  pupil  of  the  Stoic  philoso- 
pher Panaetius,  who  came  to  Rome 
about  156  B.C., and  was  a  member 
of  the  Scipionic  circle.  From  that 
time,  Stoic  philosophy  exercised 
considerable  influence  on  the  de- 
velopment of  legal  doctrine. 

7.  Lucius  (Licinius)  Crassus 
Mucianus  (not  Munianus)  :  a 
confusion  of  the  great  orator 
L.  Licinius  Crassus  (consul  B.C. 
95),  speaker  in  Cic.  de  Or.,  with 
P.  Licinius  Crassus  Mucianus 
(consul  131  B.C.),  whom  Cicero 
mentions  as  jurist  also,  e.g.  de  Or. 

i',  37;  i,  5°- 

10.  Q.  Mucius  (Scaevola)  pon- 
tifex maximus:  he  was  the  first 
writer  to  give  the  ius  civile  scien- 
tific, systematic  treatment.  He  is 
the  earliest  writer  from  whose 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW          [§  43 

rius,  Gaius  luventius,  ex  quibus  Gallum  maximae  auctori- 
tatis  apud  populum  fuisse  Servius  dicit.  Omnes  tamen 
hi  a  Servio  Sulpicio  nominantur;  alioquin  per  se  eorum 
scripta  non  talia  exstant,  ut  ea  omnes  appetant.  Denique 
5  nee  versantur  omnino  scripta  eorum  inter  manus  homi- 
num,  sed  Servius  libros  suos  complevit,  pro  cuius  scriptura 
ipsorum  quoque  memoria  habetur. 

43.    Servius  autem  Sulpicius  cum  in  causis  orandis  pri- 
mum  locum  aut  pro  certo  post  Marcum  Tullium  obtineret, 

10  traditur  ad  consulendum  Quintum  Mucium  de  re  amici  sui 
pervenisse  cumque  eum  sibi  respondisse  de  hire  Servius 
parum  intellexisset,  iterum  Quintum  interrogasse  et  a 
Quinto  Mucio  responsum  esse  nee  tamen  percepisse,  et 
ita  obiurgatum  esse  a  Quinto  Mucio ;  namque  eum  dixisse 

15  turpe  esse  patricio  et  nobili  et  causas  oranti  ius  in  quo  ver- 
saretur  ignorare.  Ea  velut  contumelia  Servius  tactus 
operam  dedit  iuri  civili  et  plurimum  eos,  de  quibus  locuti 
sumus,  audiit,  institutus  a  Balbo  Lucilio,  instructus  autem 
maxime  a  Gallo  Aquilio,  qui  fuit  Cercinae ;  itaque  libri 

20  complures  eius  exstant  Cercinae  confecti.  Hie  cum  in 
legatione  perisset,  statuam  ei  populus  Romanus  pro  ros- 
tris  posuit,  et  hodieque  exstat  pro  rostris  Augusti.  Huius 
volumina  complura  exstant:  reliquit  autem  prope  centum 
et  octaginta  libros. 

works  excerpts  are  preserved  in  the  obtineret :  inasmuch  as  Q.  Mucius 

Digest ;  see  Introd.  15.  was  murdered  in  82  B.C.  and  Cicero 

6.  sed  Servius  libros  suos  com-  made  his  first  appearance  as  an 

plevit,  pro  cuius  scriptura  :  'but  orator  in  81,  it  is  impossible  that 

Servius  made  use  of  them  in  his  Sulpicius  should  have  held  the 

own  books,  by  virtue  of  whose  writ-  first  place  as  an  orator  '  after  Cic- 

ings  their  memory  is  still  preserved.'  ero,'  during  the  lifetime  of  Q.  Mu- 

8.  cum  in  causis  orandis  cius.  The  incident  recounted  here 

primum  locum  post  M.  Tullium  is  looked  upon  with  suspicion. 

66 


§44] 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


44.  Ab  hoc  plurimi  profecerunt,  fere  tamen  hi  libros 
conscripserunt :  Alfenus  Varus  Gaius,  Aulus  Ofilius,  Titus 
Caesius,  Aufidius  Tucca,  Aufidius  Namusa,  Flavius  Pris- 
cus,  Gaius  Ateius,  Pacuvius  Labeo  Antistius  Labeonis 
5  Antistii  pater,  Cinna,  Publicius  Gellius.  Ex  his  decem 
libros  octo  conscripserunt,  quorum  omnes  qui  fuerunt  libri 
digesti  sunt  ab  Aufidio  Namusa  in  centum  quadraginta 
libros.  Ex  his  auditoribus  plurimum  auctoritatis  habuit 
Alfenus  Varus  et  Aulus  Ofilius,  ex  quibus  Varus  et  consul 

10  fuit,  Ofilius  in  equestri  ordine  perseveravit.  Is  fuit  Cae- 
sari  familiarissimus  et  libros  de  iure  civili  plurimos  et  qui 
omnem  partem  operis  fundarent  reliquit.  Nam  de  legibus 
vicensimae  primus  conscribit,  de  iurisdictione  idem  edictum 
praetoris  primus  diligenter  composuit,  nam  ante  eum  Ser- 

15  vius  duos  libros  ad  Brutum  perquam  brevissimos  ad  edictum 
subscriptos  reliquit. 


i .   Ab  hoc  plurimi  profecerunt : 

cf.  note  on  Ab  his,  p.  65 .  Alfenus 
Varus  (not  Gaius,  his  praenomen 
was  probably  Publius),  consul  suf- 
fectus  39  B.C.  Horace,  Sat.  i,  3, 
130,  may  possibly  have  had  this 
jurist  in  mind,  cf.  Aero  ad  loc. 

5.  Ex  his  decem  libros  octo : 
1  of  these  ten  jurists,  eight  wrote 
books.' 

10.  Caesari  familiarissimus : 
for  the  relation  of  Aulus  Ofilius  to 
Julius  Caesar  and  the  latter's  plan 
for  the  codification  of  the  law,  see 
Suet.  ltd.  44;  Isidor.  Orig.  5,  i,  5. 

12.  de  legibus  vicensimae :  it  is 
not  known  what  this  means.  Some 
have  thought  it  to  be  the  title  of 
a  work.  There  was  an  old  law 
enacted  356  B.C.,  mentioned  by 


Liv.  7,  1 6,  7,  by  which  a  tax  of  5 
per  cent  {pars  iricesima)  was  im- 
posed on  the  value  of  slaves  manu- 
mitted. Vicesima  came  to  be  used 
as  a  substantive .  Augustus  enacted 
a  lex  de  vicesima  hereditatum 
(6  A.D.)  which  imposed  a  tax  of  5 
per  cent  on  the  value  of  inherit- 
ances and  legacies  taken  by  Ro- 
man citizens.  This  law  is  here 
excluded,  however,  by  its  date. 
Others  consider  De  Legibus  the 
title  of  the  work,  whose  contents 
are  now  unknown,  and  vicensimae 
as  a  corruption  which  possibly  con- 
tains the  number  of  books  (vigintt). 
13.  edictum  praetoris  primus 
diligenter  composuit :  i.e.  he  was 
the  first  to  edit  scientifically  the 
praetorian  edict. 


67 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW     [§§  45-46 

45.  Fuit  eodem  tempore  et  Trebatius,  qui  idem  Corneli 
Maximi  auditor  fuit,  Aulus  Cascellius,  Quintus  Mucius  Vo- 
lusii  auditor,  denique  in  illius  honorem  testamento  Publium 
Mucium  nepotem  eius  reliquit  heredem.  Fuit  autem  quaes- 
5  torius  nee  ultra  proficere  voluit,  cum  illi  etiam  Augustus 
consulatum  offerret.  Ex  his  Trebatius  peritior  Cascellio, 
Cascellius  Trebatioeloquentior  fuisse  dicitur,  Ofilius  utroque 
doctior.  Cascellii  scripta  non  exstant  nisi  unus  liber  bene 
dictorum,  Trebatii  complures,  sed  minus  frequentantur. 

10  46.  Post  hos  quoque  Tubero  fuit,  qui  Ofilio  operam 
dedit ;  fuit  autem  patricius  et  transiit  a  causis  agendis  ad 
ius  civile,  maxime  postquam  Quintum  Ligarium  accusavit 
nee  obtinuit  apud  Gaium  Caesarem.  Is  est  Quintus  Liga- 
rius,  qui  cum  Africae  oram  teneret,  infirmum  Tuberonem 

15  applicare  non  permisit  nee  aquam  haurire,  quo  nomine 
eum  accusavit  et  Cicero  defendit.  Exstat  eius  oratio 
satis  pulcherrima,  quae  inscribitur  pro  Quinto  Ligario. 
Tubero  doctissimus  quidem  habitus  est  iuris  publici  et  pri- 
vati  et  complures  utriusque  operis  libros  reliquit;  sermone 

20  etiam  antiquo  usus  affectavit  scribere  et  ideo  parum  libri 
eius  grati  habentur. 

2.   Q.  Mucius  Volusii :  Momm-  represents  as  a  speaker  in  Sat.  2, 

sen  suggests  Quint  t  Mucii  audi-  I.      Cicero   addressed    seventeen 

torts    Volcatii   auditor,  i.e.   Aul.  letters  to  him  (ad  Fani.  Book  7). 
Cascellius,  the  pupil  of  Volcatius,  13.    nee    obtinuit  apud   Gaium 

who  was  in  turn  a  pupil   of  Q.  Caesarem :  he  lost  his  case  before, 

Mucius.     The  change  to  Volcatii  etc. 

is  based  on  Plin.  N.  H.  8, 40, 144 ;  19.   sermone  antiquo  usus  affec- 

Volcatium,  qui  Cascellium  ius  ci-  tavit:  for  etiam  read  tamen.     The 

vile  docuit.  jurists  were  distinguished  for  their 

6.    peritior :     sc.    iuris.  —  C.  purity  of  language  and  directness 

Trebatius  Testa  was  the  friend  of  of  speech,  but  Tubero  was  a  repre- 

Cicero  and  was  the  celebrated  ju-  sentative  of  the  archaistic  tend- 

rist  under  Augustus,  whom  Horace  ency  in  opposition  to  Cicero. 

68 


§§  47-48J     SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

47.  Post  hunc  maximae  auctoritatis  fuerunt  Ateius  Cap- 
ito,  qui  Ofilium  secutus  est,  et  Antistius  Labeo,  qui  omnes 
hos  audivit,  institutus  est  autem  a  Trebatio.  Ex  his  Ateius 
consul  fuit;  Labeo  noluit,  cum  offerretur  ei  ab  Augusto 
5  consulatus,  quo  suffectus  fieret,  honorem  suscipere,  sed 
plurimum  studiis  operam  dedit  et  totum  annum  ita  divi- 
serat,  ut  Romae  sex  mensibus  cum  studiosis  esset,  sex 
mensibus  secederet  et  conscribendis  libris  operam  daret. 
Itaque  reliquit  quadringenta  volumina,  ex  quibus  plurima 

10  inter  manus  versantur.  Hi  duo  primum  veluti  diversas 
sectas  fecerunt :  nam  Ateius  Capito  in  his,  quae  ei  tradita 
fuerant,  perseverabat ;  Labeo  ingenii  qualitate  et  fiducia 
doctrinae,  qui  et  ceteris  operis  sapientiae  operam  dederat, 
plurima  innovare  instituit. 

15  48.  Et  ita  Ateio  Capitoni  Massurius  Sabinus  successit, 
Labeoni  Nerva,  qui  adhuc  eas  dissensiones  auxerunt.  Hie 
etiam  Nerva  Caesari  familiarissimus  fuit.  Massurius  Sa- 
binus in  equestri  ordine  fuit  et  publice  primus  respondit : 
posteaque  hoc  coepit  beneficium  dari,  a  Tiberio  Caesare 

20  hoc  tamen  illi  concessum  erat. 

2.    Antistius     Labeo  :     Labeo  the  head  of  the  opposite  school, 

was  the  most  important  jurist  of  was  by  no  means  Labeo's  equal  in 

the  Augustan  age,  a  most  produc-  ability  or   renown.      No  general 

tive    writer,   whose    works    were  dividing    line    between    the    two 

drawn  upon  by  all  of  his  succes-  schools  appears  from   the  extant 

sors  of  importance.     He  was  a  re-  sources,  but  diverging  views  were 

publican    and   a   reformer,  whose  adhered   to   in   matters   of  detail 

political  views  were   not   in    har-  (cf.  Bremer,  Die  Rechtslehrer  und 

mony  with  those  of  the  emperor.  Rechtsschnlen,  pp.  68  ff.). 
Although   the   scholiasts   identify  17.    Sabinus  in  equestri  ordine 

him  with  the  Labeo  of  Hor.  Sat.  fuit  et  primus  respondit :  it  is  pos- 

i,   3,   82,   Labeone   insanior,   the  sible  that  '  fuit  et '  is  an  interpola- 

view  is  not  tenable.      Ateius  Ca-  tion.     Otherwise  there  is  a  con- 

pito,  classed  along  with  Labeo  as  tradiction  in  the  text,  since  it  states 

69 


DELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW    [§§  49-50 

49.  Et,  ut  obiter  sciamus,  ante  tempora  August!  publice 
respondendi  ius  non  a  principibus  dabatur,  sed  qui  fiduciam 
studiorum  suorum  habebant,   consulentibus  respondebant 
neque  responsa  utique  signata  dabant,  sed  plerumque  iudi- 

5  cibus  ipsi  scribebant,  aut  testabantur  qui  illos  consulebant. 
Primus  divus  Augustus,  ut  maior  iuris  auctoritas  haberetur, 
constituit,  ut  ex  auctoritate  eius  responderent ;  et  ex  illo 
tempore  peti  hoc  pro  beneficio  coepit.  Et  ideo  optimus 
princeps  Hadrianus,  cum  ab  eo  viri  praetorii  peterent,  ut 
10  sibi  liceret  respondere,  rescripsit  eis  hoc  non  peti,  sed 
praestari  solere  et  ideo,  si  quis  fiduciam  sui  haberet,  delec- 
tari  se  populo  ad  respondendum  se  praepararet. 

50.  Ergo  Sabino  concessum  est  a  Tiberio  Caesare,  ut 
populo  responderet;   qui  in  equestri  ordine  iam  grandis 

15  natu  et  fere  annorum  quinquaginta  receptus  est.  Huic 
nee  amplae  facultates  fuerunt,  sed  plurimum  a  suis  audi- 
toribus  sustentatus  est. 

that  Sabinus,  who  was  they?™/  to  were  not  officially  binding  because 

receive  the  privilege  of  giving  au-  of  any  power  granted  them  by  the 

thoritative  responses  (tus  respon-  state,    nor    were     they    rendered 

dendi)  was  given  this  authority  by  under  seal ;  but  afterward,  under 

Tiberius,  but  that   the   plan  was  Augustus,  they  were  binding  (ex 

inaugurated  by  Augustus.     With-  auctoritate  principis},  because  of 

out  fuit  et,  the  meaning  is :  Sabi-  the  privilege  delegated  the  jurists 

nus  was  the  first  knight  to  receive  by  the  emperor ;    and   they  were 

the  ius  respondendi,  the  privilege  also  rendered  to  the  judge  under 

being  accorded  him  by  Tiberius.  seal. 

For  the  meaning  of  ius  respon-  n.   delectari  se   populo,   etc.: 

dendi   (ex  auctoritate  principis)  read  with  Mommsen,  delectari  se, 

see  Introd.  8.  si  populo    ad   respondendrim  .se 

i.   ante  tempora  August!  pub-  praestaret. 

lice  respondendi  ius  non  a  prin-  16.    a  suis  auditoribus   susten- 

cipibus  dabatur,  etc.  :  the  meaning  tatus  est :  the  Roman  jurists  were 

is  that  before  the  time  of  Augus-  as  a  rule  men  of  wealth,  who  de- 

tus,  the   decisions   of  the  jurists  voted  their  talents  to  their  profes- 

70 


§§  5 '-53]     SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

51.  Huic  successit  Gains   Cassius   Longinus,  natus  ex 
filia  Tuberonis,  quae  fuit  neptis  Servii  Sulpicii  et  ideo  pro- 
avum  suum  Servium  Sulpicium  appellat.     Hie  consul  fuit 
cum  Quartino  temporibus  Tiberii,  sed  plurimum  in  civitate 

5  auctoritatis   habuit  eo  usque,  donee   eum  Caesar  civitate 
pelleret. 

52.  Expulsus  ab  eo  in  Sardinian!,  revocatus  a  Vespasi- 
ano  diem   suum   obit.     Nervae   successit  Proculus.     Fuit 
eodem  tempore  et  Nerva  films,  fuit  et  alius  Longinus  ex 

10  equestri  quidem  ordine,  qui  postea  ad  praeturam  usque 
pervenit.  Sed  Proculi  auctoritas  maior  fuit,  nam  etiam 
plurimum  potuit  appellatique  sunt  partim  Cassiani,  partim 
Proculiani,  quae  origo  a  Capitone  et  Labeone  coeperat. 

53.  Cassio    Caelius    Sabinus    successit,    qui    plurimum 
15  temporibus  Vespasiani  potuit,  Proculo   Pegasus,  qui  tem- 
poribus  Vespasiani   praefectus   urbi   fuit,    Caelio    Sabino 
Priscus  lavolenus,  Pegaso  Celsus,  patri  Celso  Celsus  films  et 

sion  for  other  emoluments   than  Surdinus    were    consuls   A.D.  30. 

those  of  a  pecuniary  character  (cf.  Longinus  is  called  by  later  writers 

Ulpian,  D.  50,  13,  I,  5,  est  quidem  Cassius,    C.    Cassius,    and    once 

res  sanctissiina  civilis  sapientia,  Gaius  noster,  but  he  should  not  be 

sed  quae  pretio  nummario  non  sit  confused  with  the  famous  author  of 

aestimanda  nee  dehotiestanda,  dum  the  Institutes  of  Civil  Law,  known 

in  iudicio  honor  petitur}.     Sabi-  as   Gaius,   whom    Justinian    calls 

nus  is  the  first  instance  of  a  Roman  '  Gaius  noster,'  and  who  flourished 

of  humble  circumstances  acquiring  a  century  later  than  Cassius  Lon- 

great  renown  as  a  jurist  and  finally  ginus. 

receiving  the  ins  respondendi  late  5.   donee   eum  Caesar  civitate 

in  life.    His  work  on  the  ius  civile,  pelleret :  i.e.  Nero,  who  banished 

in  three  books,  formed  the  basis  of  him  to  Sardinia,  65  A.D.,  cf.  Tac. 

extensive  commentaries  by  Pom-  Ann.  16,9;  Suet.  Nero,-yj. 
ponius,  Ulpian,  and  Paulus.  17.    Celsus     films:      Juventius 

3.    Hie  consul  fuit   cum   Quar-  Celsus  (filius)  and  Salvius  lulianus 

tino :  read  cum  Surdino.     C.  Cas-  were  two  of  the  most  important 

sius    Longinus    and    L.    Naevius  jurists  of  the  second  century  and 

71 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Priscus  Neratius,  qui  utrique  consules  fuerunt,  Celsus 
quidem  et  iterum,  lavoleno  Frisco  Aburnius  Valens  et 
Tuscianus,  item  Salvius  lulianus. 


Inst.  i,  i 


PRELIMINARY   DEFINITIONS 

lustitia  est  constans  et  perpetua  voluntas  ius 
suum  cuique  tribuens.  luris  prudentia  est  divi- 
narum  atque  humanarum  rerum  notitia,  iusti  atque  iniusti 
scientia. 

His  generaliter  cognitis  et  incipientibus  nobis  exponere 
iura  populi  Romani  ita  maxime  videntur  posse  tradi  corn- 


were  the  heads  of  the  Procu- 
lian  and  Sabinian  schools  respec- 
tively, lulianus  was  the  author  of 
the  Edictum  Perpetuum,  compiled 
by  order  of  Hadrian  (see  Introd. 
5),  and  with  him  Pomponius,  hav- 
ing brought  his  history  down  to 
his  own  day,  brings  his  outline  of 
the  Roman  jurists  to  a  close. 

4.  lustitia  est  constans :  these 
definitions  of  a  preliminary  char- 
acter are  given  here  because  they 
stand  at  the  opening  of  Justinian's 
Institutes.  No  modern  law  book 
would  begin  with  a  definition  of 
justice,  but  according  to  Roman 
usage,  the  word  ins  in  its  broadest 
sense  includes  all  the  commands 
which  men  are  expected  to  obey, 
whether  they  are  the  commands 
of  morality  or  of  positive  law.  Ius 
is  the  science  of  the  good  and  just 
(ars  boni  et  aequi}.  These  defi- 
nitions do  not  draw  the  line 


sharply  between  law  and  morality. 
Natural  justice  is  confused  with 
legal  justice.  Legal  justice  is  that 
which  is  done  in  conformity  with 
the  requirements  of  positive  law, 
whether  the  law  is  good  or  bad. 
luris  prudentia  is  primarily  a 
knowledge  of  law,  but  ius  includes 
a  knowledge  of  things  divine  as 
well  as  human,  since  the  Roman 
public  law  embraced  divine  as  well 
as  human  affairs.  The  most  com- 
mon meanings  of  ius  are  :  law,  as 
used  in  English,  denoting  a  system 
of  rights  and  duties  which  are  en- 
forced by  remedies ;  a  right,  con- 
ferred by  law  and  implying  a 
corresponding  duty  imposed  upon 
another  (e.g.  ius  itineris,  '  a  right 
of  way ')  ;  the  place  where  law  is 
administered  (e.g.  in  ius  vocare, 
'  to  summon  to  court '). 

8.     His    generaliter    cognitis  : 
'  after  these  general  definitions,  at 


72 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

modissime,  si  primo  levi  ac  simplici,  post  deinde  diligen- 
tissima  atque  exactissima  interpretatione  singula  tradantur. 
Alioquin  si  statim  ab  initio  rudem  adhuc  et  infirmum  ani- 
mum  studiosi  multitudine  ac  varietate  rerum  oneraverimus, 

5  duorum  alterum  aut  desertorem  studiorum  efficiemus  aut 
cum  magno  labore  eius,  saepe  etiam  cum  diffidentia,  quae 
plerumque  iuvenes  avertit,  serins  ad  id  perducamus,  ad 
quod  leniore  via  ductus  sine  magno  labore  et  sine  ulla  diffi- 
dentia maturius  perduci  potuisset. 

to      luris  praecepta  sunt  haec :  honeste  vivere,  alterum  non 
laedere,  suum  cuique  tribuere. 

Huius  studii  duae  sunt  positiones,  publicum  et  privatum. 
Publicum  ius  est,  quod  ad  statum  rei  Romanae  spectat, 
privatum,  quod  ad  singulorum  utilitatem  pertinet. 

if  Constat  autem  ius  nostrum  aut  ex  scripto  aut 

3   Inst.  i,  2,  3 

ex  non  scripto. 

Ex  non  scripto  ius  venit,  quod  usus  compro- 

Inst.  i,  2,  9  5 

bavit.     Nam  diuturm  mores  consensu  utentium 
comprobati  legem  imitantur. 

the  very  outset  of  our  exposition  of  public  worship  (publicum  ius  in 

the  laws  of  the  Roman  people,  it  sacris,  in  sacerdotibus,  in  magis- 

seems  to  us  that  they  can  be  most  tratibus  consislit,  D.  i,  i,  i,  2). 

advantageously,1   etc.      This   pas-  Private  law  regulated  the  relations 

sage  explains  Justinian's  purpose  of  individual  subjects  one  with  an- 

in  ordering  the  preparation  of  the  other.     In  the  early  law  of  Rome, 

Institutes  as  an  elementary  text-  the  line  dividing  public  and  private 

book,  cf.  Introd.  16.  law  was  not  clearly  defined,  and 

12.   Huius  studii  duae  sunt  posi-  at  all  times  much  that  is  now  re- 

tiones :    the   most   comprehensive  garded  as  pure  criminal  law  was 

division  of  the  Roman  system  is  then  a  part  of  the  private  law  (e.g. 

into  public  and  private  law.     Pub-  theft,   robbery).      See    text    and 

lie  law  regulated  the  relations  ex-  notes  on  Obligations   ex  Delicto, 

isting  between   the  state  and  its  p.  232  ff. 

subjects  (including  also  civil  and  17.   Ex  non  scripto  ius  venit: 

religious  administration),  and  the  the  earliest  source  of  law  among 

73 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 

Mores   sunt  tacitus  consensus    populi   longa 

Ulp.fr.  4  ,. 

consuetudme  mveteratus. 

luiian.  D.  De  quibus  causis  scriptis  legibus  non  utimur, 

*•  3'  32  id  custodiri  oportet,  quod  moribus  et  consuetudine 

5  inductum  est :  et  si  qua  in  re  hoc  deficeret,  tune  quod 
proximum  et  consequens  ei  est ;  si  nee  id  quidem  appareat, 
tune  ius,  quo  urbs  Roma  utitur,  servari  oportet.  Invete- 
rata  consuetude  pro  lege  non  immerito  custoditur,  et  hoc 
est  ius  quod  dicitur  moribus  constitutum.  Nam  cum  ipsae 

10  leges  nulla  alia  ex  causa  nos  teneant,  quam  quod  iudicio 
populi  receptae  sunt,  merito  et  ea,  quae  sine  ullo  scripto 
populus  probavit,  tenebunt  omnes :  nam  quid  interest  suf- 
fragio  populus  voluntatem  suam  declaret  an  rebus  ipsis  et 
factis  ? 

1S  uip.  D.  Cum  de  consuetudine  civitatis  vel  provinciae 

i,  3. 34  confidere  quis  videtur,  primum  quidem  illud  ex- 

plorandum  arbitror,  an  etiam  contradicto  aliquando  iudicio 
consuetude  firmata  sit. 
Hermog.  D.        Sed  et  ea,  quae  longa  consuetudine  compro- 

20  x>  3. 35  bata  sunt  ac  per  annos  plurimos  observata,  velut 
tacita  civium  conventio  non  minus  quam  ea  quae  scripta 
sunt  iura  servantur. 

Paul.  D.  Immo   magnae    auctoritatis  hoc    ius  habetur, 

quod   in   tantum   probatum    est,  ut   non    fuerit 

25  necesse  scripto  id  comprehendere. 

the  Romans,  as  among  other  peo-  i  and  4).     The  Romans  used  the 

pies,  was  custom,  approved  by  long  terms  -written  and  unwritten  law 

usage    (quod  usus  comprobavit).  in  the  literal  meaning  of  the  words. 

Later  on,  unwritten  custom  (mas,  i.e.  written  law  was  all  that  was 

mores,  usus,  consuetudo)  was  sup-  reduced   to   writing  and  was  au- 

plemented    by    conscious    legisla-  thoritative   (e.g.  leges,  edicta,  re- 

tion  (lex,  ius  scriptnm,  cf.  lex  duo-  sponsa   prudentium,   etc.).      See 

decim  tabular  urn,  and  see  Introd.  also  Introd.  i  and  2. 

74 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE  ROMAN   LAW 

Paul.  D.  Si  de  interpretatione  legis  quaeratur,  in  primis 

i,  3, 37  inspiciendum  est  quo  iure  civitas  retro  in  eius- 

modi  casibus  usa  fuisset :  optima  enim  est  legum  interpres 
consuetude. 

5  Scriptum  ius  est  lex,  plebiscita,  senatus  con- 

•I>2>3      sulta,  principum    placita,   magistratuum    edicta, 
responsa  prudentium. 

Lex  est,  quod    populus    Roman  us    senatore    magistratu 
interrogante,  veluti  consule,  constituebat.     Plebiscitum  est, 

10  quod  plebs  plebeio  magistratu  interrogante,  veluti  tribuno, 
constituebat.  Plebs  autem  a  populo  eo  differt,  quo  species  a 
genere  ;  nam  appellatione  populi  universi  cives  significantur 
connumeratis  etiam  patriciis  et  senatoribus :  plebis  autem 
appellatione  sine  patriciis  et  senatoribus  ceteri  cives  signi- 

15  ficantur.  Sed  et  plebiscita  lege  Hortensia  lata  non  minus 
valere  quam  leges  coeperunt.  Senatus  consultum  est, 
quod  senatus  iubet  atque  constituit.  Nam  cum  auctus  est 
populus  Romanus  in  eum  modum,  ut  difficile  sit  in  tmum 
eum  convocare  legis  sanciendae  causa,  aequum  visum  est 

20  senatum  vice  populi  consuli.  Sed  et  quod  principi  placuit, 
legis  habet  vigorem,  cum  lege  regia,  quae  de  imperio  eius 
lata  est,  populus  ei  et  in  eum  omne  suum  imperium  et 
potestatem  concessit.  Quodcumque  igitur  imperator  per 
epistulam  constituit  vel  cognoscens  decrevit  vel  edicto 

25  praecepit,  legem  esse  constat :  haec  sunt,  quae  constitu- 
tiones  appellantur.  Plane  ex  his  quaedam  sunt  personales, 

8.  magistratu     interrogante  :      planation  see  note  on  plebiscita, 
i.e.  when  a  senatorial  magistrate      p.  50. 

proposes  the  bill  (legis  rogatio,  cf.  16.  Senatus  consultum  :  see  Int. 

notes  on  leges  tulit,  and  on  latatn  6  and  note  on  senatus  cons.  p.  5 1 . 

legem,  p.  46).  20.    quod  principi  placuit :  see 

9.  Plebiscitum:  for  further  ex-  Introd.  7  and  10. 

75 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

quae  nee  ad  exemplum  trahuntur,  quoniam  non  hoc  princeps 
vult ;  nam  quod  alicui  ob  merita  indulsit,  vel  si  cui  poenam 
irrogavit,  vel  si  cui  sine  exemplo  subvenit,  personam  non 
egreditur.  Aliae  autem,  cum  generales  sunt,  omries  procul 

5  dubio  tenent.  Praetorum  quoque  edicta  non  modicam  iuris 
obtinent  auctoritatem.  Haec  etiam  ius  honorarium  solemus 
appellare,  quod  qui  honores  gerunt,  id  est  magistratus,  auc- 
toritatem huic  iuri  dederunt.  Proponebant  et  aediles  curules 
edictum  de  quibusdam  casibus,  quod  edictum  iuris  honorarii 

10  portio  est.  Responsa  prudentium  sunt  sententiae  et  opi- 
niones  eorum,  quibus  permissum  erat  iura  condere.  Nam 
antiquitus  institutum  erat  ut  essent  qui  iura  publice  inter- 
pretarentur,  quibus  a  Caesare  ius  respondendi  datum  est, 
qui  iuris  consulti  appellabantur.  Quorum  omnium  senten- 

15  tiae  et  opiniones  earn  auctoritatem  tenent,  ut  iudici  recedere 
a  response  eorum  non  liceat,  ut  est  constitutum. 

Omnes  populi,  qui  legibus  et  moribus  regun- 

Gai.  i,  i  .  . 

tur,  partim  suo  propno,  partim  communi  omnium 

hominum   iure  utuntur ;    nam  quod  quisque  populus  ipse 

20  sibi  ius  constituit,  id  ipsius   proprium  est  vocaturque  ius 

civile,  quasi   ius   proprium  civitatis ;    quod  vero   naturalis 

5.  Praetorum  edicta:  see  In-  and  adapted  to  other  requirements 

trod.  5.  by  the  introduction  of  new  princi- 

19.  quod  quisque  populus  ipse  pies  drawn  from  the  ius  gentium* 

sibi  ius  constituit :  the  text  makes  i.e.  the  law  which  was  found  to 

the  further  important  distinction  exist  among  the  other  peoples  with 

between  the  ius  civile  and  the  ius  whom  the  Romans  came  into  busi- 

gentium.  The  most  ancient  law  ness  relations.  By  the  agency  of 

of  Rome  was  called  ius  civile,  or  the  praetorian  edict  and  the  scien- 

law  peculiar  to  the  Roman  state  tine  interpretation  of  trained  ju- 

and  governing  Roman  citizens  rists,  the  formal  and  rigid  laws  of 

only.  As  time  advanced,  this  the  ius  civile  were  rendered  more 

body  of  law,  partly  written  and  flexible  and  adaptable  to  new  cir- 

partly  unwritten,  was  supplemented  cumstances,  so  that  eventualh 

76 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

ratio  inter  omnes  homines  constituit,  id  apud  omnes  popu- 
los  peraeque  custoditur  vocaturque  ius  gentium,  quasi  quo 
iure  omnes  gentes  utuntur.  Populus  itaque  Romanus 
partim  suo  proprio,  partim  communi  omnium  hominum 
5  iure  utitur. 

Omne  ius,  quo  utimur,  vel  ad  personas  perti- 
net,  vel  ad  res,  vel  ad  actiones.     Et  prius  videa- 
mus  de  personis. 

PERSONS  (De  lure  Personarum] 

Hermog.  D.        Cum  hominum  causa  omne  ius  constitutum  sit, 
10  z>  5.  2  primo  de  personarum  statu  dicemus. 


what  was  originally  merely  the 
law  of  a  city  became  a  cosmopoli- 
tan law  of  the  world. 

De  lure  Personarum :  persona, 
meaning  literally  the  mask  worn 
by  an  actor  and  then  the  r61e 
in  a  play,  is  used  metaphorically  in 
law  to  denote  the  role  played  by 
the  individual  in  the  different  parts 
of  the  drama  of  civic  life.  The 
same  individual  might  be  endowed 
with  the  personality  of  father, 
husband,  guardian,  etc.  {persona 
patris,mariti,  tie  tor  is}.  Persona, 
therefore,  in  legal  language,  de- 
notes whoever  or  whatever  is  the 
subject  of  legal  rights  and  duties 
or  is  capable  of  assuming  such 
rights  and  duties,  i.e.  individuals 
(but  not  slaves),  corporations,  and 
public  bodies.  Abstract  concep- 
tions clothed  by  law  with  legal 
personality  (artificial,  juristic,  legal 


persons),  the  Romans  called  cor- 
pora, collegia,  societates,  sodalitates, 
etc.  Of  these,  some  of  the  more 
important  were  the  Populus  Ro- 
manus, the  imperial  treasury  {fis- 
cus),  industrial  guilds  (collegia 
opificuni),  societies  for  the  burial 
of  the  poor  (collegia  temiioruni), 
mining  and  tax-gathering  compa- 
nies (societates  aurifodinarum, 
argentifodinaruin,  salinarum,  vec- 
tigalinm  publicoruni) ,  social  and 
political  clubs  ( sodalilates) ,  etc. 

10.  de  personarum  statu :  status 
is  the  technical  term  denoting  the 
civil  position  of  the  individual  as 
a  legal  person.  The  three  ele- 
ments of  status,  each  of  which  was 
called  caput,  were  liberty  (liber- 
tas},  citizenship  (civilas),  and 
membership  in  a  family  (familid). 
In  the  person  of  a  civis  Romanus 
these  three  elements  were  united. 


77 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN    LAW 


Paul.  D. 
i.S.7 


Qui  in  utero  est,  perinde  ac  si  in  rebus  hu- 
manis  esset  custoditur,   quotiens  de  commodis 

ipsius  partus  quaeritur;  quamquam  alii  antequam  nascatur 

nequaquam  prosit. 
5  Paul.  D.  Antiqui  libero  ventri  ita  prospexerunt,  ut  in 

S.  4. 3  tempus  nascendi  omnia  ei  iura  integra  reserva- 

rent;  sicut  apparet  in  iure  hereditatium. 

Paul.  D.  Non  sunt  liberi,  qui  contra  f ormam  humani  gen- 

I>  5-  H  eris  converse  more  procreantur  :  veluti  si  mulier 

10  monstrosum  aliquid  aut  prodigiosum  enixa  sit.     Partus  au- 

tem,  qui  membrorum  humanorum  officia  ampliavit,  aliqua- 

tenus  videtur  effectus  et  ideo  inter  liberos  connumerabitur. 

uip.  D.  Quaeret  aliquis,  si  portentosum  vel  monstro- 

50, 16, 135       sum  vei  debilem  mulier  ediderit  vel  qualem  visu 


i.  Qui  in  utero  est:  inasmuch 
as  legal  rights  are  created  for  the 
benefit  of  man,  the  limits  of  his 
personality  are  determined  by  the 
points  where  such  rights  begin 
and  cease  to  be  useful  by  the  oper- 
ation of  nature,  namely,  at  birth 
and  death.  Birth  is  the  complete 
separation  from  its  mother  of  a 
child  born  alive  (partus  antequam 
edatiir,  nuttier  is  port  to  est  vclvisce- 
r»»i,  D.  25,  4,  i,  i).  By  excep- 
tion, however,  in  the  matter  of 
inheritance,  according  to  a  law  of 
the  Twelve  Tables,  a  child  already 
conceived  but  still  unborn  is  re- 
garded as  possessed  of  legal  rights, 
if  it  come  into  the  world  alive, 
being  reckoned  among  the  heirs 
as  if  already  born  (nascitnms  pro 
iain  nato  habetur  qnando  de  eius 
commodo  agitur).  Otherwise  the 


unborn  child  was  without  legal 
significance,  and  during  the  re- 
public, therefore,  abortion  in  the 
case  of  a  married  woman  was  not 
punishable.  —  in  rebus  humanis  : 
'  as  if  already  born  alive.' 

4.  prosit :  sc.  qui  in  utero  est 
as  subject. 

5.  libero  ventri:    'for  a  child 
free   at   its   birth.'     Venter   often 
means,  in  legal  Latin,  the  child  in 
embryo.       As   the   status   of  the 
child  depends  upon  the  status  of 
the  father,  if  born  from  a  he  stum 
matriinoniitm,  and  of  its  mother, 
if  born  extra   matrimonium,   the 
privilege  stated  in  the  text  is  ex- 
tended to  that  embryo  only  which 
will   be   free  at   the    time    of    its 
birth. 

9.   converse  more :   '  in  an  un- 
natural manner.1 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN   LAW 

vel  vagitu  novum,  non  humanae  figurae,  sed  alterius,  magis 
animalis  quam  hominis,  partum,  an,  quia  enixa  est,  pro- 
desse  ei  debeat.  Et  magis  est,  ut  haec  quoque  parentibus 
prosint :  nee  enim  est  quod  eis  imputetur,  quae  qualiter 
5  potuerunt,  statutis  obtemperaverunt,  neque  id  quod  fatal- 
iter  accessit,  matri  damnum  iniungere  debet. 


FREEMEN  AND  SLAVES 

Summa    itaque    divisio   de   hire    personarum 
haec  est,  quod  omnes  homines  aut  liberi  sunt 
aut   servi.     Et   libertas   quidem  est,   ex  qua  etiam   liberi 
10  vocantur,  naturalis  facultas  eius  quod  cuique  facere  libet, 


Inst.  i,  3 


2.  prodesse :  it  was  the'policy 
of  Roman  legislation  to  encourage 
marriage.  As  early  as  the  lex 
Cincta,  204  B.C.,  which  placed  a 
limit  to  the  giving  of  gifts  and 
rewards,  exception  was  made  in 
favor  of  gifts  made  to  family 
relations  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
viding a  dos.  Augustus  sought 
to  encourage  marriage  and  the 
rearing  of  children,  and  to  dis- 
courage celibacy  and  childless- 
ness, by  the  lex  Inlia  (4  A.D.)  and 
the  lex  Papia  Poppaea  (9  A.D.). 
Among  other  provisions  of  these 
laws,  the  freeborn  mother  of  three 
children  and  the  freedwoman 
mother  of  four  children  (ius  triiitn 
vel  quattuor  liberoruni)  were  re- 
lieved of  certain  disabilities  and 
received  several  advantages  in  the 
rights  of  inheritance.  According 
to  the  Twelve  Tables,  creatures 
contra  for  mam  humani  generis 


(portenta,  monstra,  prodigia)  and 
cripples  (debiles)  were  to  be  put 
to  death,  though  they  sufficed  for 
the  avoidance  of  the  penalties  for 
childlessness  imposed  by  the  lex 
Iidia  et  Papia  Poppaea. 

Freemen  and  Slaves  :  accord- 
ing to  the  Roman  law,  not  all 
human  beings  are  persons.  Per- 
sonality presumes  a  free  condition. 
Slaves  are,  therefore,  not  persons 
but  things.  They  are  not  protected 
by  the  law  as  its  subjects,  but  by 
their  masters  as  property.  They 
are  without  rights  and  have  no 
legal  capacity  (servus  nulhim  ca- 
put  habet,  cf.  Inst.  I,  16,  4).  How- 
ever, since  the  slave  is  possessed 
of  reason  and  is  physically  capable 
of  acquiring  rights  (therein  differ- 
ing from  other  animals),  he  is  some- 
times loosely  spoken  of  as  persona. 
The  slave  was  answerable  for  his 
crimes  and,  though  his  contracts 


79 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE  ROMAN   LAW 


nisi  si  quid  aut  vi  aut  iure  prohibetur.  Servitus  autem  est 
constitutio  iuris  gentium,  qua  quis  dominio  alieno  contra 
naturam  subicitur.  Servi  autem  ex  eo  appellati  sunt,  quod 
imperatores  captives  vendere  iubent  ac  per  hoc  servare 

5  nee  occidere  solent.  Qui  etiam  mancipia  dicti  sunt,  quod 
ab  hostibus  manu  capiuntur.  Servi  autem  aut  nascuntur 
aut  fiunt.  Nascuntur  ex  ancillis  nostris :  fiunt  aut  iure 
gentium,  id  est  ex  captivitate,  aut  iure  civili,  cum  homo 
liber  maior  viginti  annis  ad  pretium  participandum  sese 

10  venumdari  passus  est.  In  servorum  condicione  nulla  dif- 
ferentia est.  In  liberis  multae  differentiae  sunt.  Aut  enim 
ingenui  sunt  aut  libertini. 


had  no  legal  significance  under 
the  ins  civile,  they  nevertheless 
created  natural  obligations  which 
were  binding  if  the  slave  attained 
his  freedom  (semi  ex  delicti*  obli- 
gaiitur ;  ex  contractibus  autem 
ch'iliter  non  obligantur.  sed  natu- 
ral Her  et  obligantur  et  obligant,  D. 

44,  7>  14)- 

i.  Servitus  constitutio  iuris 
gentium :  according  to  the  Roman 
view,  all  men  are  by  nature  free. 
Slavery  was  found  to  exist,  how- 
ever, among  the  various  tribes  and 
nations  with  which  the  Romans 
came  in  contact  and  was  therefore 
looked  upon  as  an  institution  of 
the  ins  gentium  (cf.  Inst.  I,  2,  i). 
But  as  regards  the  institution  of 
slavery,  this  ins  gentium  was  found 
to  be  in  conflict  with  the  law  of 
nature,  since  slavery  existed  among 
all  peoples.  Owing  to  this  lack 
of  harmony  between  the  theory  of 
the  natural  freedom  of  all  men 


and  actual  practice,  the  policy  of 
the  law  was  constantly  in  favor  of 
liberty  (favore  libertatis},  tending 
to  ameliorate  the  condition  of 
slaves  by  protecting  them  against 
cruelty  and  facilitating  the  acquisi- 
tion of  freedom  by  various  forms 
of  manumission.  Cf.  note  on 
Freedom,  p.  100. 

8.  iure  civili :  a  freeman  by 
collusion  with  a  pretended  master 
might  fraudulently  allow  himself 
to  be  sold  as  a  slave  to  an  inno- 
cent purchaser.  Inasmuch  as 
liberty  was  an  inalienable  right, 
after  the  purchaser  had  paid  the 
price,  the  one  sold  could  set  up  a 
claim  for  his  freedom  and,  except 
for  the  provision  whereby  the  pre- 
tended slave  was  to  be  taken  at 
his  word,  could  have  gained  his 
release  and  have  succeeded  in  the 
fraud.  Slavery  as  a  penalty  was 
one  of  the  worst  forms  of  civil 
death.  A  freeman  might  become 


80 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


FREEBORN  (Ingenui) 

Ingenui  sunt  qui   liberi  nati  sunt;  libertini, 
qui  ex  iusta  servitute  manumissi  sunt. 

Ingenuus  is  est,  qui  statim  ut  natus  est  liber 
est,  sive  ex  duobus  ingenuis  matrimonio  editus, 
5  sive  ex  libertinis,  sive  ex  altero  libertino,  altero  ingenue. 
Sed  et  si  quis  ex  matre  libera  nascatur,  patre  servo,  inge- 


Gai.  i,  ii 


Inst.  i,  4 


a  slave  in  other  ways,  e.g.  qui  cum 
liber  esset,  censeri  nohierit  could 
be  sold  trans  Tiberim  (Cic.  pro 
Caec.  34,  99)  ;  qui  ad  dilectum 
olim  non  respondebat  (D.  49,  16, 
4,  10)  ;  one  who  was  a  delinquent 
debtor  (nexus)  at  the  hands  of 
his  creditor  (Twelve  Tables,  III)  ; 
one  sentenced  to  death  or  to  work 
in  the  mines  (servus  poenae,  Inst. 
i,  12, 3)  ;  a  freedman  who  displayed 
ingratitude  toward  his  former 
master  (revocatio  in  servitutetti) . 
Ingenui :  men  as  regards  their 
legal  position  are  divided  into 
liberi  and  servi.  Liberi  are  further 
divided  into  freeborn  (ingenui) 
and  freedmen  (libertini)  on  the 
one  hand ;  and  into  ewes,  Latini, 
and  peregrini,  on  the  other  hand. 
Gives  are  further  subdivided  into 
personae  sut  iuris  and  personae 
alieni  iuris.  Status  or  condicio 
of  the  individual  is  determined 
by  birth.  A  child  born  from  a 
marriage  which  conforms  to  the 
requirements  of  the  ius  civile  (ma- 
trimonium  legitimum  or  iustum), 
follows  the  status  of  the  father ; 
born  from  a  marriage  of  the  ius 

ROMAN  LAW  —  6  8  I 


gentium  (sine  legitimo  matrimonio) 
or  out  of  wedlock,  the  child  fol- 
lows the  condition  of  the  mother, 
conubio  interveniente  liberi  semper 
patrem  sequuntur,  non  interve- 
niente conubio  matris  condicioni 
accedunt,  Ulp.  5,  8 ;  qui  illegitime 
concipiuntur,  statum  sumunt  ex 
eo  tempore  quo  nascuntur,  Gai.  I, 
89,  though  cf.  note  on  ex  matre, 
p.  82. 

1.  Ingenui  sunt  qui  liberi  nati 
sunt  :    an   ingenuus   is   one   who 
has  not  only  been  born  free,  but 
who  has  always  continued  to  be 
free. 

2.  ex    iusta    servitute :     iusta 
means  legitima,  that  which  is  ac- 
cording to  law,  hence  iusta  servitus 
is  the  actual  condition  of  slavery, 
in  law  as  well  as  in  fact,  a  condi- 
tion which  must  not  have  arisen 
through  error  in  fact  in  supposing 
one  was  a  servus  when  in  reality 
he  was  an  ingenuus.     Manumis- 
sion of  one  merely  supposed  to  be 
a   slave   did   not    prejudice   birth 
(veritati   et   origini   ingenuitatis 
manumissio  quocumque  modofacta 
non  praeiudicat,  Paul.   5,  I,  2). 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN    LAW 


nuus  nihilo  minus  nascitur ;  quemadmodum  qui  ex  matre 
libera  et  incerto  patre  natus  est,  quoniam  vulgo  conceptus  est. 
Cum  autem  ingenuus  aliquis  natus  sit,  non  officit  illi  in 
servitute  fuisse  et  postea  manumissum  esse,  saepissime 
enim  constitutum  est  natalibus  non  officere  manumissionem. 
uip.  D.  Libertinus  si  ius  anulorum  impetraverit,  quam- 

40,  io,  6  vis  jura  ingenuitatis  salvo  iure  patroni  nactus  sit, 
tamen  ingenuus  intellegitur :  et  hoc  divus  Hadrianus  re- 
scripsit 

Uip.  D. 
38,  2,  3 


Etiamsi  ius  anulorum  consecutus  sit  libertus 
a  principe,   adversus  huius    tabulas   venit  pa- 


Cf.  note  on  non  officit,  below. 
Those  returning  from  captivity 
(jservi  excaptivitate)  recover  their 
former  status  iure  postliminii  (see 
note  on  postliminium,  p.  85),  and 
are,  therefore,  ipso  facto  neither 
libertini  nor  servi. 

i.  ex  matre  libera :  in  general, 
the  child  follows  the  status  of  the 
mother  at  the  moment  of  birth. 
The  jurists  modified  this  principle 
favore  libertatis,  so  that  the  child 
was  born  free  if  its  mother  had  been 
free  at  any  time  during  gestation, 
even  though  she  was  enslaved  when 
the  child  was  born,  D.  I,  5,  5, 

2-3- 

3.  non  officit  in  servitute  fu- 
isse :  i.e. '  it  does  not  prejudice  his 
status  to  have  been  in  the  position 
of  a  slave '  and  aftenvard  to  have 
been  manumitted.  Such  a  one  is 
still  ingenuus,  not  libertinus  (cf. 
note  on  ex  iusta,  p.  81).  'In  ser- 
vitute esse1  means  to  be  in  the 
position  of  a  slave  de  facto,  while 


'  semis  esse '  means  to  be  a  slave 
de  iure,  e.g.  a  freeborn  child, 
stolen  and  sold  as  a  slave,  is  in 
servitute,  but  if  it  fall  into  the 
hands  of  a  master  who  manumits 
it,  the  child  is  not  libertinus,  but 
ingenuus  de  iure.  The  theory  in 
this  case  is  that  blood  is  not  viti- 
ated by  a  servile  condition. 

6.  Libertinus  si  ius  anulorum 
impetraverit :  freedmen  (libertini) 
may  attain  the  status  of  freeborn 
citizens  (ingenui)  in  two  ways : 
(a)  by  acquiring  the  right  to  wear 
the  gold  ring  (ius  aureonun 
amdoruni),  in  which  case,  the 
right  of  patron  over  his  freedmen 
remained  unimpaired  (salvo  iure 
patroni)  ;  (b)  by  a  kind  of  legal 
regeneration  (iiataliitm  restitutio} 
with  a  suspension  of  the  patron's 
rights  (restituitur  quantum  ad  ius 
totuin  pertinet).  Justinian  extend- 
ed these  privileges  to  all  freedmen, 
who  then  acquired  full  rights  of  free- 
born citizens  without  limitations. 


82 


SELECTED   TEXTS  FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

tronus,  ut  multis  rescriptis  continetur :  hie  enim  vivit  quasi 
ingenuus,  moritur  quasi  libertus. 

Mardan.  D.  Interdum  et  servi  nati  ex  post  facto  iuris  in- 
40,11,2  terventu  ingenui  fiunt,  ut  ecce  si  libertinus  a 
5  principe  natalibus  suis  restitutus  fuerit.  Illis  enim  utique 
natalibus  restituitur,  in  quibus  initio  omnes  homines  fue- 
runt,  non  in  quibus  ipse  nascitur,  cum  servus  natus  esset. 
Hie  enim,  quantum  ad  totum  ius  pertinet,  perinde  habetur 
atque  si  ingenuus  natus  esset,  nee  patronus  eius  potest 
ro  ad  successionem  venire.  Ideoque  imperatores  non  facile 
solent  quemquam  natalibus  restituere  nisi  consentiente 
patrono. 

SLAVES 

uip  D  Quod  attinet  ad   ius  civile,  servi   pro  nullis 

habentur ;    non    tamen    et    iure   naturali,  quia, 

15  quod  ad  ius  naturale  attinet,  omnes  homines  aequales  sunt. 

Ex  ancilla  et  libero  iure  gentium  servus  nasci- 

Gai.  1,82 

tur,  et  contra  ex  libera  et  servo  liber  nascitur. 

13.   Quod  attinet  ad  ius  civile :  illorum  fit,  et  liber  homo  noster 

ancient  law  does  not  recognize  all  ab  eis  captus   servus  fit  eorum, 

men  as  subjects  of  legal  rights.  D.  49,  15,  5,  2).      In  Roman  law, 

Only   members   of  each   people's  a  slave  is  a  thing,  classed  along 

community  or  state  are  protected  with   beasts  of  burden,  and,  like 

by  the  laws  of  that  community  or  them,  he  is  at  the  absolute  dis- 

state   (quod  quisque  populus  ipse  position   of  his   master  (inancipi 

sibi  iiis  constituit,  id  ipsius  pro-  res    sunt    servi  et    quadrupedes, 

prium  dvitatis  est  vocaturque  ius  Ulp.   19,  I  ;  servile  caput  nullum 

civile,  quasi  ius  proprium  ipsius  ius  habet,  D.  4,  5,  3,  i),  who  has 

civitatis,  Inst.  I,  2,  i).    Strangers  over   his   sla,ve  the  power  of  life 

are  unprotected   and   are   looked  and  death  (vitae  necisque  potestas*) 

upon  as  lawful  prey  to  be  seized  and  domestic  chastisement.     For 

and  thrown  into  servitude  as  the  the  limitation  of  these  rights  under 
'    property  of  their  captors  (quod  ex  •    the  empire  see  note  on  Freedom, 

nostro  ad  eos,  i.e.  hostes,  pervenit,  p.  100. 

83 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


U!p.  5,  8 


Conubio  interveniente  liberi  semper  patrem 
sequuntur;  non  interveniente  conubio  matris 
condicioni  accedunt,  excepto  eo  qui  ex  peregrine  et  cive 
Romana  peregrinus  nascitur,  quoniam  lex  Minicia  ex  alter- 
utro  peregrino  natum  deterioris  parentis  condicionem 
sequi  iubet.  Ex  cive  Romano  et  Latina  Latinus  nascitur 
et  ex  libero  et  ancilla  servus,  quoniam,  cum  his  casibus 
conubia  non  sint,  partus  sequitur  matrem. 

SLAVERY  ARISING  FROM  CAPTIVITY 


10 


Ulp.  D. 
49.  15.  24 


Hostes  sunt,  quibus  bellum  publice  populus 
Romanus  decrevit  vel  ipsi  populo  Romano  ;  ceteri 


i.  Conubio  interveniente:  the 
ius  conubii  is  the  right  to  conclude 
a  marriage  valid  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  ius  civile 
(tnatrimonium  iustum,  legitimum, 
ex  iure  Quiritiuni),  conferring 
patria  potestas  and  other  rights 
growing  out  of  the  organization 
of  the  family.  Latini  and  pere- 
grini  had  the  conubiuin  only  when 
obtained  by  special  grant  (conu- 
bitim  est  uxoris  iure  ducendae 
facultas.  Conubium  habent  cives 
Romani  cum  civibus  Romanis ; 
cum  Lalinis  et  peregrinis  it  a,  si 
concessum  sit.  Cum  servis  nullnm 
est  conubiuin,  Ulp.  5,  3  ;  Veteranis 
quibusdam  concedi  solet  principali- 
bus  constitutionibus  conubium  cum 
his  Latinis  peregrinisve,  quas 
primas  post  missionem  uxores 
duxerint,  Gai.  I,  57).  Cf.  notes 
on  iustum  and  iustas,  p.  1 1 1. 

Slavery  arising  from  Captiv- 
ity :  as  has  been  stated  in  the 


text,  slavery  arises  from  birth  or 
from  other  circumstances  recog- 
nized by  the  ius  gentium  and  the 
ius  civile.  By  the  ius  gentium, 
slavery  arises  from  captivity,  but 
the  one  returning  from  captivity 
regains  his  former  status  and  his 
legal  rights  as  they  existed  at  the 
moment  of  his  capture  {postlimini- 
um  habet,  i.e.  omnia  restituuntur 
ei  iura,  ac  si  captus  ab  hostibus  non 
essei).  One  dying  in  captivity  was 
held  to  have  died  a  free  man,  and, 
by  a  fiction  of  law  (fictio  legis  Cor- 
neliae,  important  in  the  matter  of 
inheritance),  to  have  died  at  the 
moment  of  capture  (in  omnibus 
partibus  iuris  is,  qui  reversus  non 
est  ab  hostibus,  quasi  tune  decessisse 
•videtur,  cum  captus  est,  D.  49.  15, 
1 8).  The  most  common  ways  in 
which  slavery  may  arise  by  the  ius 
civile  have  been  mentioned  above. 
Cf.  note  on  iure,  p.  80. 

9.    Hostes  sunt :    although  the 


84 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


latrunculi  vel  praedones  appellantur.  Et  ideo  qui  a  latro- 
nibus  captus  est,  servus  latronum  non  est,  nee  postliminium 
illi  necessarium  est ;  ab  hostibus  autem  captus,  ut  puta  a 
Germanis  et  Parthis,  et  servus  est  hostium  et  postliminio 
5  statum  pristinum  recuperat 

Pompon.  D.  Postliminii  ius  competit  aut  in  bello  aut  in 
49.  15,  5  pace.  In  bello,  cum  hi,  qui  nobis  hostes  sunt, 
aliquem  ex  nostris  ceperunt  et  intra  praesidia  sua  perduxe- 
runt :  nam  si  eodem  bello  is  reversus  fuerit,  postliminium 
10  habet,  id  est  perinde  omnia  restituuntur  ei  iura,  ac  si  captus 
ab  hostibus  non  esset.  Antequam  in  praesidia  perducatur 
hostium,  manet  civis.  Tune  autem  reversus  intellegitur, 
si  aut  ad  amicos  nostros  perveniat  aut  intra  praesidia 
nostra  esse  coepit.  In  pace  quoque  postliminium  datum 


stranger  was  not  protected  by  the 
laws  of  Rome  originally,  unless  he 
enjoyed  the  rights  of  hospitality 
(hospitium  publicum  vel  priva- 
tuttt),  or  was  protected  by  treaty 
with  his  people,  and  might,  there- 
fore, be  seized  as  a  slave,  it  was 
necessary,  in  order  that  the  ius 
postliininii  should  operate  and 
that  slavery  should  arise  ex  cap- 
tivitate,  that  the  captive  should  be 
taken  by  a  formal  enemy,  i.e.  one 
against  whom  the  Roman  people 
had  formally  declared  war  or  vice 
versa  {hostes  hi  sunt,  qui  nobis 
aut  quibus  nos  publice  bellum 
decrevimus~) . 

g.  postliminium :  this  term  is 
used  subjectively  and  objectively. 
It  is  either  the  recovery  of  rights  by 
a  person  who  has  been  reduced  to 
slavery  by  capture  in  war,  or  it  is 


the  recovery  of  rights  over  a  per- 
son or  thing  restored  from  the 
possession  of  an  enemy  (cum  duae 
species  postliminii  sint,  ut  aut 
nos  revertamur  aut  aliquid  re- 
cipiamus,  D.  49,  15,  14).  The 
derivation  of  the  word,  discussed 
by  Cic.  Top.  8,  is  retained  by  Jus- 
tinian, I  nst.  i,  12,  5  :  dictum  est 
autem  postliminium  a  limine  et 
post,  ut  eum,  qui  ab  hostibus  captus 
in  fines  nostros  postea  pervenit, 
postliminio  reversum  recte  dici- 
mus.  Nam  limina  sicut  in  do- 
mibus  finem  quendam  faciunt,  sic 
et  imperil  finem  It  men  esse  veteres 
valuer  unt.  Hinc  et  limes  diet  us 
est  quasi  finis  quidam  et  terminus. 
Ab  eo  postliminium  dictum,  quia 
eodem  limine  revertebatur,  quo 
amissus  erat.  Deserters  and  those 
surrendering  to  the  enemy  in 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAX   LAW 

est :  nam  si  cum  gente  aliqua  neque  amicitiam  neque  hos- 
pitium  neque  foedus  amicitiae  causa  factum  habemus,  hi 
hostes  quidem  non  sunt,  quod  autem  ex  nostro  ad  eos 
pervenit,  illorum  fit,  et  liber  homo  noster  ab  eis  captus 
5  servus  fit  et  eorum ;  idemque  est,  si  ab  illis  ad  nos  aliquid 
perveniat.  Hoc  quoque  igitur  casu  postliminium  datum 
est.  Captivus  autem  si  a  nobis  manumissus  fuerit  et  per- 
venerit  ad  suos,  ita  demum  postliminio  reversus  intellegitur, 
si  malit  eos  sequi  quam  in  nostra  civitate  manere.  Et  ideo 

10  in  Atilio  Regulo,  quern  Carthaginienses  Romam  miserunt, 
responsum  est  non  esse  eum  postliminio  reversum,  quia 
iuraverat  Carthaginem  reversurum  et  non  habuerat  ani- 
mum  Romae  remanendi.  Et  ideo  in  quodam  interprete 
Menandro,  qui  posteaquam  apud  nos  manumissus  erat, 

15  missus  est  ad  suos,  non  est  visa  necessaria  lex,  quae  lata 
est  de  illo,  ut  maneret  civis  Romanus  :  nam  sive  animus 
ei  fuisset  remanendi  apud  suos,  desineret  esse  civis,  sive 
animus  fuisset  revertendi,  maneret  civis,  et  ideo  esset  lex 
supervacua. 

20  Tryphon.  D.  In  bello  postliminium  est,  in  pace  autem  his, 
49,  is.  12  qui  bello  capti  erant,  de  quibus  nihil  in  pactis 


battle  with  their  weapons  in  their  the  enemy  {nihil  interest,  quomodo 

hands  did  not  enjoy  the  privileges  captivus  reversus  est,  utrum  di- 

of  the  ius  postliminii.  missus  an  vi  vel  fallacia  potesta- 

ii.    responsum  est :    it  was  de-  tern  hostiuni  evaserit,  ita  tamen, 

tided,  i.e.  by  the  court.     Responsa  si  ea   mente   venerit,  ut  non  illo 

of  the  jurisconsults  were  not  au-  rev erteretur :    nee  enim  satis  est 

thoritative  at  this  time,  cf.  Intr.  8.  corpore  dotmtin   quern  redisse,  si 

16.   animus     remanendi:     the  mente  alienus  est,  D.  49.  15,  26). 
manner  of  a  captive's  return  was  21.    in  pactis  erat  comprehen- 

immaterial,    provided    he    return  sum:    'regarding    whom   no  pro- 

with   the  intention   of  remaining  visions   had   been    made    in    the 

and  had  not  promised  to  go  back  to  treaties.' 

86 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

erat  comprehensum.  Quod  ideo  placuisse  Servius  scribit, 
quia  spem  revertendi  civibus  in  virtute  bellica  magis  quam 
in  pace  Romani  esse  voluerunt.  Verum  in  pace  qui  per- 
venerunt  ad  alteros,  si  bellum  subito  exarsisset,  eorum 
5  servi  efficiuntur,  apud  quos  iam  hostes  suo  facto  depre- 
hendimtur.  Quibus  ius  postliminii  est  tarn  in  bello  quam 
in  pace,  nisi  foedere  cautum  fuerat,  ne  esset  his  ius  post- 
liminii. 
Pompon.  D.  Si  quis  legatum  hostium  pulsasset,  contra  ius 

10  s°i  7, 18  gentium  id  commissum  esse  existimatur,  quia 
sancti  habentur  legati.  Et  ideo  si,  cum  legati  apud  nos 
essent  gentis  alicuius,  bellum  cum  eis  indictum  sit,  respon- 
sum  est  liberos  eos  manere  :  id  enim  iuri  gentium  convenit 
esse.  Itaque  eum,  qui  legatum  pulsasset,  Quintus  Mucius 

15  dedi  hostibus,  quorum  erant  legati,  solitus  est  respondere. 
Quern  hostes  si  non  recepissent,  quaesitum  est,  an  civis 
Romanus  maneret :  quibusdam  existimantibus  manere, 
aliis  contra,  quia  quern  semel  populus  iussisset  dedi,  ex 
civitate  expulsisse  videretur,  sicut  faceret,  cum  aqua  et 

20  igni  interdiceret.  In  qua  sententia  videtur  Publius  Mucius 
fuisse.  Id  autem  maxime  quaesitum  est  in  Hostilio  Man- 
cino,  quern  Numantini  sibi  deditum  non  acceperunt;  de 

i.    placuisse    Servius     scribit,  der  of  the  guilty  one  to  an  enemy 

etc.  :  '  that  this  was  so  ordained  whose    ambassadors    have    been 

because  the  Romans  wanted  citi-  violated. 

zens  to  base  their  hope  of  return  21.  Hostilio  Mancino  :  Hostilius 
more  on  bravery  in  war  than  on  Mancinus,  after  he  had  been  de- 
an expectation  of  peace.'  Servius  feated  by  the  Numantines  during 
Sulpicius  Rufus,  the  friend  of  Cic-  his  consulship,  137  B.C.,  succeeded 
ero,  is  meant.  Cf.  D.  i,  2,  2,  43  in  making  a  peace  with  them 
above,  text  p.  66.  which,  failed  to  gain  the  approval 

9.    Si  quis  legatum  pulsasset :  of  the  senate,  and  he  was  conse- 

among  the  ways  in  which  slavery  quently  ordered  to  return  to  the 

may  arise  iure  civili,  is  the  surren-  enemy.       A    lex    was     afterward 

87 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


quo  tamen  lex  postea  lata  est  ut  esset  civis  Romanus,  et 
praeturam  quoque  gessisse  dicitur. 

MANUMISSION 


Ulp.  D. 
1,1,4 


Manumissiones    quoque   iuris   gentium    sunt. 
Est  autem  manumissio  de  manu  missio,  id  est 
5  datio  libertatis :  nam  quamdiu  quis  in  servitute  est,  manui 
et  potestati  suppositus  est,  manumissus  liberatur  potestate. 
Quae  res  a  iure  gentium  originem  sumpsit,  utpote  cum 
iure  naturali  omnes  liberi  nascerentur  nee  esset  nota  manu- 
missio, cum  servitus  esset  incognita ;  sed  posteaquam  iure 
10  gentium  servitus  invasit,  secutum  est  beneficium  manumis- 


passed  in  his  favor  (Vel.  Paterc. 
2,  i),  though  the  causa  Mancini 
became  an  important  instance  of 
deditio  ad  hostem,  referred  to  sev- 
eral times  by  Cicero  (de  Or.  r, 
40;  de  Of.  3,30;  Top.  8). 

Manumission :  a  servus  differed 
from  other  things  (res)  in  that 
he  was  capable  of  obtaining  his 
freedom  by  manumission,  acquir- 
ing thereby  personality  and  legal 
capacity  for  himself.  As  a  master 
could  not  confer  more  right  than 
he  himself  possessed,  a  manu- 
mitted slave  became  civis  only 
when  his  master  was  a  Roman 
citizen.  There  were  degrees  in 
the  status  of  a  manumitted  slave, 
according  as  the  legal  requirements 
for  manumission  were  totally  or 
only  partially  fulfilled.  Complete 
manumission  required  (a)  that  the 
master  have  complete  ownership 
(do minium)  of  his  slave  ex  iure 


Quiritium;  (6)  that  the  manu- 
mission occur  in  one  of  the  ways 
prescribed  by  law  (mantttnissio 
iusta  ac  legit  ima),  e.g.  vitidicta, 
censu,  testamento,  etc. ;  (c)  that 
it  conform  to  the  restrictions  upon 
manumissions  imposed  by  law  (e.g. 
by  the  lex  Aelia  Sentia).  In  cer- 
tain cases  a  slave  might  obtain  his 
liberty  without  manumission.  See 
D.  40,  8,  and  note  on  Freedom, 
p.  100. 

4.  de  manu  missio  :  mantis  de- 
notes the  power  of  a  paterfamilias 
over  his  slaves  and  children,  but 
the  word  is  usually  employed  more 
specifically  of  the  power  of  hus- 
band over  his  wife  (matins  mar  it  i). 
The  master  (dominus)  has  domin- 
ium  over  his  slave  as  a  part  of  his 
property ;  he  also  has  potestas  over 
his  slave  (like  that  over  his  son) 
as  a  passive  member  of  his  house- 
hold; hence  the  power  of  the 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


sionis.  Et  cum  uno  natural!  nomine  homines  appellare- 
mur,  iure  gentium  tria  genera  esse  coeperunt :  liberi  et 
his  contrarium  servi  et  tertium  genus  liberti,  id  est  hi 
qui  desierant  esse  servi. 

Libertorum  genera  sunt  tria,  cives   Romani, 
Latini  luniani,  dediticiorum  numero. 


Ulp.  i,  5 


master  over  his  slave  is  usually 
called  dominica  pot  est  as ;  that  of 
father  over  his  children,  patria  po- 
testas ;  that  of  husband  over  his 
wife,  maims, 

3.  liberti :  liberti  is  here  used 
for  libertini.  The  usual  distinction 
between  libertus  and  libertinus  is 
that  the  former  is  concrete,  denot- 
ing a  certain  freeclman  with  refer- 
ence to  his  patron,  whose  name 
usually  follows  in  the  gen.  case; 
while  the  latter  is  abstract,  denot- 
ing the  freedman  class  as  con- 
trasted with  the  freeborn  (e.g. 
libertinnm  quideni  se  confiteri,  li- 
ber turn  autem  Seii  se  negare). 

5.  Libertorum  genera  sunt  tria  : 
other  modes  of  manumission  than 
those  called  legitima,  though  void 
iure  civili,  were  recognized  by  cus- 
tom, by  the  praetorian  law,  and 
by  imperial  constitutions.  Slaves 
manumitted  by  one  of  these  modes 
were  placed  in  a  position  inferior 
to  citizenship,  as  that  of  Latini  or 
dediticii.  By  the  lex  Aelia  Sen- 
tia  (4  A.D.)  it  was  further  required, 
in  order  to  make  a  complete  manu- 
mission which  conferred  citizen- 
ship, that  the  slave  be  thirty  years 
of  age.  By  the  lex  lunia  Nor- 


bana  (about  19  A.D.),  those  whose 
manumission  was  defective,  but 
who  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the 
praetor  as  freedmen,  were  given, 
instead  of  complete  civitas,  the 
rights  of  Latini  luniani,  i.e.  of  all 
the  public  and  private  rights,  they 
received  the  ius  continercii  only. 
The  Latinus  Innianus  could  not 
make  a  Roman  will  nor  inherit 
under  a  will ;  at  death,  his  property 
fell  to  his  manumissor  as  if  he  were 
still  a  slave.  Owing  to  the  crimi- 
nal character  of  great  numbers  of 
manumitted  slaves,  the  lex  Aelia 
Sentia  provided  that  slaves  con- 
victed of  crime,  who  had  been  put 
in  chains,  tortured,  or  branded, 
should  after  manumission  be  in 
the  position  of  those  who  had  sur- 
rendered to  an  enemy  (dediticii'). 
Among  other  disabilities,  dediticii 
could  not  live  within  one  hundred 
miles  of  the  City,  could  never  be- 
come cives,  and  at  death  forfeited 
all  their  property  to  their  manu- 
missor.  The  distinction  between 
freedmen  as  cives,  Latini,  and 
dediticii  was  not  abolished  until 
the  time  of  Justinian,  under  whose 
legislation,  however,  a  slave  be- 
came wholly  free  by  any  act  of 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Vindicta    manumittuntur    apud    magistratum 
populi  Romani,  velut  consulem  praetoremve  vel 
proconsulem. 

Gai.  D.  Non  est  omnino  necesse  pro  tribunal!  manu- 

5  4°.  2. 7  mittere  :  itaque  plerumque  in  transitu  servi  ma- 

numitti  solent,  cum  aut  lavandi  aut  gestandi  aut  ludorum 
gratia  prodierit  praetor  aut  proconsul  legatusve  Caesaris. 
Hermog.  D.        Manumissio  per  lictores  hodie  domino  tacente 
40, 2, 23         expediri  solet,  et  verba  sollemnia  licet  non  dican- 
10  tur,  ut  dicta  accipiuntur. 


his  master  intended  to  grant  free- 
dom. 

i.  Vindicta  manumittuntur: 
manumissio  was  an  act  of  both  pri- 
vate and  public  significance.  As  a 
private  act,  in  freeing  a  slave  from 
the  ownership  of  his  master,  it  de- 
prived the  master  of  a  part  of  his 
property ;  as  a  public  act,  it  was 
significant  because  it  conferred 
personality  and  citizenship  upon 
one  who  had  formerly  no  part  in 
the  state.  Under  the  old  law  of 
the  republic,  therefore,  manumis- 
sion was  not  a  matter  of  private 
interest  only,  accomplished  by  the 
mere  will  of  the  dowinus,  but  a 
transaction  in  which  the  state  in- 
tervened, as  is  shown  by  the  oldest 
forms  of  this  institution.  Manu- 
mission by  vindicta  was  a  fictitious 
suit  (causa  liber  alts'),  brought  be- 
fore a  magistrate.  The  vindicta 
(orfestuca)  was  a  staff  represent- 
ing the  ancient  hasta  as  a  symbol 
6f  ownership.  A  friend  of  the 
slave  (assertor  libertatis),  in  later 


times  a  lictor  of  the  praetor  often 
acting  in  this  capacity,  touched  the 
slave  with  the  staff,  at  the  same 
time  asserting  his  freedom.  The 
master,  releasing  his  hold  on  the 
slave  (manu  mittens),  indicated 
his  acquiescence  in  the  claim.  The 
magistrate,  representing  the  au- 
thority of  the  state,  then  declared 
the  slave  to  be  free.  For  an  ac- 
count of  this  procedure  in  the 
sources,  see  Gai.  4,  16.  This  act 
of  manumission  might  be  per- 
formed wherever  the  praetor  could 
be  found  (i.e.  de  piano,  '  on  the 
level  ground1)  and  did  not  require 
his  presence  in  formal  court  (pro 
tribunali,  '  on  his  elevated  plat- 
form1). 

8.  Manumissio  per  lictores  :  the 
definite  requirements  of  the  ficti- 
tious suit  by  vindicta  passed  away 
in  time  and  the  appearance  of  an 
assertor,  even  though  he  were  rep- 
resented in  the  person  of  a  lictor, 
was  unnecessary.  The  only  re- 
quirement then  remaining  was  the 


90 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE  ROMAN   LAW 

uip.  D.  Ego  cum  in  villa  cum  praetore  fuissem,  passus 

40, 2,  s          sum  apud  eum  manumitti,  etsi  lictoris  praesen- 
tia  non  esset. 

Censu    manumittebantur    olim,    qui    lustrali 

Ulp.  i,  8 

5  censu    Romae    mssu    dommorum    inter    cives 

Romanes  censum  profitebantur. 

Fr.  Dosith.         Census  autem  Romae  agi  solet  et  peracto  censu 
J7  lustrum  conditur ;  est  autem  lustrum  quinquen- 

nale  tempus,  quo  Roma  lustratur.     Sed  debet  hie  servus 

10  ex  iure  Quiritium  manumissoris  esse,  ut  civis  Romanus  fiat. 
Magna  autem  dissensio  est  inter  peritos,  utrum  eo  tempore 
vires  accipiant  omnia,  quo  in  censu  aguntur,  an  eo  tempore 
quo  lustrum  conditur.  Sunt  enim  qui  existimant  non  alias 
vires  accipere  quae  in  censu  aguntur,  nisi  haec  dies  sequa- 

15  tur,  qua  lustrum  conditur;  existimant  enim  censum  descen- 
dere  ad  diem  lustri,  non  lustrum  recurrere  ad  diem  census. 
Quod  ideo  quaesitum  est,  quoniam  omnia  quae  in  censu 
aguntur  lustro  confirmantur. 
Marcian.  D.        Testamento  manumissus  ita  demum  fit  liber,  si 

20  40, 4, 23  testamentum  valeat  et  ex  eo  adita  sit  hereditas, 
vel  si  quis  omissa  causa  testamenti  ab  intestato  possideat 

declaration  of  freedom  by  the  mag-  period.  This  form  of  manumis- 
istrate  in  the  presence  of  the  slave  sion  disappeared  (olini)  with  the 
manumitted.  abolition  of  the  census,  the  last 
4.  Censu  manumittebantur  :  lustrum  having  occurred  under 
manumission  censu  was  completed  Vespasian,  74  A.D.  (Censorin.  de 
under  magisterial  supervision  by  in-  Die  Nat.  18).  It  was  a  disputed 
serting  the  name  of  the  slave  to  be  point  with  the  jurists  of  the  re- 
manumitted  in  the  list  of  citizens  public,  whether  the  manumission 
with  his  master's  approval.  Here  was  valid  from  the  beginning  or 
the  state  was  represented  by  the  only  at  the  end  of  the  lustral 
censor  and  the  act  was  legalized  by  period. 

the  lustrum  condition,  celebrated  19.    Testamento    manumissus  : 

at  the   conclusion   of  the   lustral  manumissions  by  last  will  were  valid 

91 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE  ROMAX   LAW 

hereditatem.  Testamento  data  libertas  competit  pure  qui- 
dem  data  statim,  quam  adita  fuerit  hereditas  vel  ab  uno  ex 
heredibus ;  si  in  diem  autem  libertas  data  est  vel  sub  con- 
dicione,  tune  competit  libertas,  cum  dies  venerit  vel  con- 

5  dicio  extiterit. 

Qui  directo  testamento  liber  esse  iubetur,  velut 

hoc  modo  :  '  Stichus  servus  meus  liber  esto,'  vel 

hoc :  '  Stichum  servum  meum  liberum  esse  iubeo,'  is  ipsius 

testatoris  fit  libertus.     Nee  alius  ullus  directo  ex  testamento 

10  libertatem  habere  potest,  quam  qui  utroque  tempore  testa- 
toris ex  iure  Quiritium  fuerit,  et  quo  faceret  testamentum 
et  quo  moreretur. 

uip.  D.  Si  servi,  qui  apud  hostes  sunt  liberi  esse  iussi 

40,4.3°         sunt,  ad  libertatem  perveniunt,  quamvis  neque 

15  testamenti  neque  mortis  tempore  testantis,  sed  hostium 
fuerunt. 


in  the  same  way  that  other  testa- 
mentary dispositions  were  valid. 
Though  the  execution  of  a  will 
was  a  private  act,  it  was  theoreti- 
cally an  act  in  which  the  state  was 
interested,  as  the  history  of  the 
Roman  testament  shows  (cf.  testa- 
mentum calatis  comitiis,  requiring 
the  cooperation  of  the  popular  as- 
sembly with  the  testator).  Owing 
to  this  fact,  manumissio  testamento 
was  classed  along  with  the  forms 
already  mentioned  as  iusta  ac  legi- 
tima.  Direct  manumission,  be- 
queathed by  the  testator  as  a  legacy 
to  his  slave  (manumissio  testa- 
mento direct  a),  is  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  testamentary 
injunction  to  the  heir  to  effect  the 


manumission  of  the  slave  (inanu- 
missio fideicotnmissaria).  In  the 
former  case,  the  slave  was  called 
orcinus,  because  his  patron  was 
already  deceased  when  liberty  was 
acquired  ;  see  also  note  on  non 
testatoris,  p.  93. 

i.  pure  data  statim.  quam  : 
4  when  granted  unconditionally,  is 
acquired  just  as  soon  as.1 

3.  in  diem  vel  sub  condicione : 
it  was  a  common  practice  to  make 
the  manumissio  directa  operate 
from  a  stated  time  or  depend  on 
the  fulfillment  of  a  condition.  In 
either  case,  the  slave  remains  ad 
interim  slave  of  the  heir  and  is 
called  statuliber.  When  the  pro- 
vision has  been  satisfied,  he  gains 


92 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Ulp.  2,  7 


Libertas  et  directo  potest  dari  hoc  modo  :  '  liber 
esto,'  '  liber  sit,'  '  liberum  esse  iubeo,'  et  per  fidei- 
commissum,  ut  puta :  'rogo,  fidei  committo  heredis  mei,  ut 
Stichum  servum  manumittat.'  Is,  qui  directo  liber  esse 
5  iussus  est,  orcinus  fit  libertus  :  is  autem,  cui  per  fideicom- 
missum  data  est  libertas,  non  testatoris  sed  manumissoris 
fit  libertus. 

Multis  autem  modis  manumissio  procedit :  aut 

Inst.  1, 5, 1  ,  .  ..... 

enim  ex  sacns  constitutiombus  in  sacrosanctis 
10  ecclesiis  aut  vindicta  aut  inter  amicos  aut  per  epistulam  aut 
per  testamentum  aut  aliam  quamlibet  ultimam  voluntatem. 
Sed  et  aliis  multis  modis  libertas  servo  competere  potest, 
q*ui  tarn  ex  veteribus  quam  nostris  constitutionibus  intro- 
ducti  sunt.  Servi  vero  a  dominis  semper  manumitti  solent ; 


his  liberty  ipso  hire  (statuliber  est) 
qui  statutam  et  destinatam  in  tem- 
pus  -vel  condicionein  libertatem 
habet,  D.  40,  7,  i  ;  stattiliber,  quam- 
diu  pendet  condicio,  servus  heredis 
est,  Ulp.  2,  2). 

6.  non  testatoris  sed  manumis- 
soris fit  libertus  :  the  importance 
of  the  distinction  between  manu- 
missio directa  and  fideicommis- 
saria  appears  in  the  rights  of 
patrons  over  their  freedmen  and 
the  duties  of  freedmen  to  their  pa- 
trons (cf.  note  on  Relation,  p.  102). 
Properly  manumissio  per  fideicom- 
missum  is  no  manumission  at  all : 
it  is  only  a  direction  to  the  heir  to 
manumit,  hence  the  mamimissio 
does  not  occur  testamento,  but  is 
to  be  effected  by  the  heir  in  some 
one  of  the  regular  ways,  e.g.  vin- 
dicta, censu,  etc. 


9.   in  sacrosanctis  ecclesiis :   a 

new  form  of  complete  manumission 
was  added  by  Constantine,  whereby 
a  declaration  of  freedom  was  made 
by  the  master  in  the  sacred  edifice 
before  the  bishop.  In  the  time  of 
Justinian  every  oral  or  written 
declaration  of  freedom  acknowl- 
edged by  five  witnesses  and  numer- 
ous informal  modes  of  manumitting 
were  valid,  e.g.  by  the  master's 
writing  or  subscribing  a  letter  to 
his  slave  giving  him  his  freedom 
{per  epistulam) \  by  declaration 
among  friends  (inter  amicos)  ;  by 
the  slave's  attending  his  master's 
funeral  wearing  the  hat  of  freedom 
(pileatus)  or  by  an  invitation  to 
his  master's  table  (per  mensani), 
etc. 

ii.   aliam   quamlibet   ultimam 
voluntatem :  e.g.  per  codicillos,  i.e. 


93 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

adeo  ut  vel  in  transitu  manumittantur,  veluti  cum  praetor 
aut  proconsul  aut  praeses  in  balneum  vel  in  theatrum  eat. 
Constan.  Qui  rcligiosa  mente  in  ecclesiae  gremio  servu- 

C.Th.  4,7      jig  sujs  rneritam  concesserint  libertatem,  eandem 
5  eodem  iure  donasse  videantur,  quo  civitas  Romana  solemni- 
tatibus  decursis  dari  consuevit.     Sed  hoc  dumtaxat  eis,  qui 
sub  adspectu  antistitum  dederint,  placuit  relaxari. 
just.  c.  Sancimus,  si  quis  per  epistulam  servum  suum 

7. 6.  i  in  libertatem  producere  maluerit,  licere  ei  hoc 

10  facere  quinque  testibus  adhibitis,  qui  post  eius  litteras  sive 
in  subscriptione  positas  sive  per  totum  textum  effusas  suas 
litteras  supponentes  fidem  perpetuam  possint  chartulae 
praebere.  Et  si  hoc  fecerit,  sive  per  se  scribendo  sive  per 
tabularium,  libertas  servo  competat  quasi  ex  imitatione 

15  codicilli  delata,  ita  tamen,  ut  et  ipso  patrono  vivent  et  lib- 
ertatem et  civitatem  habeat  Romanam.  Sed  et  si  quis  inter 
amicos  libertatem  dare  suo  servo  maluerit,  licebit  ei  quinque 
similiter  testibus  adhibitis  suam  explanare  voluntatem  et 
quod  liberum  eum  esse  voluit  dicere ;  et  hoc  sive  inter  acta 

20  fuerit  testificatus  sive  testium  voces  attestationem  sunt  am- 
plexae  et  litteras  tarn  publicarum  personarum  quam  testium 
habeant,  simili  modo  servi  ad  civitatem  producantur  Ro- 
manam quasi  ex  codicillis  similiter  libertatem  adipiscentes. 

an  informal  will,  requiring  fewer  so-  but   the  witnesses   must   sign   in 

lemnities  than  a  testamentitm  and  either  case  at   the  bottom  {post 

not  meaning,  as  in  the  English  use  eius  litteras). 
of  the  term  codicil,  a  supplemen-  19.    inter  acta  testificatus  sive 

tary  will.  testium  voces  : '  he  may  either  make 

ii.   per    totum    textum:     the  a  declaration  of  this  alone  before  a 

writer    might   affix  his   signature  magistrate  or  the  statements  of  the 

simply  or  write  the  entire  text  with  attesting  witnesses   may  prove   it 

his  own  hand.     In  the  latter  case,  and  these  should  have  the  signa- 

his    signature    was    unnecessary,  tures  of,'  etc. 

94 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Gai.  i,  13 


MANUMISSION  RESTRICTED 

Lege  itaque  Aelia  Sentia  cavetur,  ut  qui  servi 
a  dominis  poenae  nomine  vincti  sint,  quibusve 
stigmata  inscripta  sint,  deve  quibus  ob  noxam  quaestio  tor- 
mentis  habita  sit  et  in  ea  noxa  fuisse  convicti  sint,  quive  ut 
5  ferro  aut  cum  bestiis  depugnarent  traditi  sint,  inve  ludum 
custodiamve  coniecti  fuerint,  et  postea  vel  ab  eodem  domino 
vel  ab  alio  manumissi,  eiusdem  condicionis  liberi  fiant,  cuius 
condicionis  sunt  peregrini  dediticii. 

Vocantur  autem  peregrini  dediticii  hi,  qui  quondam  ad- 
10  versus  populum  Romanum  armis  susceptis  pugnaverunt, 
delude  victi  se  dediderunt. 


Manumission  Restricted :  toward 
the  end  of  the  republic  the  num- 
ber of  slaves  set  free  increased  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  public  wel- 
fare was  menaced.  As  a  result  of 
foreign  conquest,  slaves  in  great 
numbers  were  imported  into  the 
City  from  all  directions,  but  espe- 
cially from  the  conquests  in  the 
East,  constituting  for  the  most 
part  a  vicious  and  dangerous  class. 
It  was  also  true  that  manumission 
was  not  always  a  reward  for  good 
conduct  and  faithful  service.  It 
was,  on  the  contrary,  often  a  means 
of  disposing  of  undesirable  prop- 
erty. Special  laws  were  enacted 
to  check  the  clothing  of  these  dis- 
reputable and  criminal  classes  with 
Roman  citizenship  (e.g.  the  lex 
Aelia  Sentia  and  the  lex  Fufia  Ca- 
ninia).  According  to  the  lex  Aelia 
Sentia,  criminal  slaves  could  attain 


only  partial  liberty  (dediticia  liber- 
tas)  ;  could  not  live  within  one 
hundred  miles  of  Rome  ;  and  could 
never  attain  citizenship.  This  law 
was  passed  under  Augustus  (4  A.D.) 
and  received  its  name  from  the  two 
consuls  for  the  year,  Sextus  Aelius 
Catus  and  Gaius  Sentius  Saturni- 
nus  (Suet.  Aug.  40,  magni  prae- 
terea  existimans,  sincerum  atque 
ab  omni  colluvione  peregrini  ac 
servilis  sanguinis  incorruptum 
servare  populum,  et  civitatem 
Roinanam  parcissime  dedit  et 
mamimittendi  moduin  termina- 
vit). 

8.  peregrini  dediticii :  the  con- 
quered peoples  became  slaves  of 
the  Roman  state,  but  were  not  al- 
ways sold  as  slaves,  inasmuch  as 
the  imperator  or  senate  gave  them 
provisional  freedom  until  their 
final  disposition  was  determined 


95 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

Huius  ergo  turpitudinis  servos  quocumque  modo  et  cu- 

iuscumque  aetatis  manumissos,  etsi  pleno  iure  dominorum 

fuerint,  numquam  aut  cives  Romanes  aut  Latinos  fieri  dice- 

mus,  sed  omni  modo  dediticiorum  numero  constitui  intel- 

5  legemus. 

Quod  autem  de  aetate  servi  requiritur,  lege 

Gai.  i,  18 

Aeha  Sentia  mtroductum  est.  Nam  ea  lex 
minores  XXX  annorum  servos  non  aliter  voluit  manu- 
missos cives  Romanos  fieri,  quam  si  vindicta,  apud  con- 

10  silium  iusta  causa  manumissionis  adprobata,  liberati  fuerint. 
lusta  autem  causa  manumissionis  est  veluti  si  quis  filium 
filiamve  aut  fratrem  sororemve  naturalem,  aut  alumnum, 
aut  paedagogum,  aut  servum  procuratoris  habendi  gratia, 
aut  ancillam  matrimonii  causa  apud  consilium  manumittat. 

15  Consilium  autem  adhibetur  in  urbe  Roma  quidem  quinque 
senatorum  et  quinque  equitum  Romanorum  puberum ;  in 
provinciis  autem  viginti  recuperatorum  civium  Romanorum, 
idque  fit  ultimo  die  conventus ;  sed  Romae  certis  diebus 
apud  consilium  manumittuntur. 

20  Item  eadem  lege  minori  XX  annorum  domino  non  aliter 
manumittere  permittitur,  quam  si  vindicta  apud  consilium 
iusta  causa  manumissionis  adprobata  fuerit. 

upon  by  a  law  or  by  an  edict  of  made  heir  (heres  solus  et  necessa- 

the    provincial    governor,  cf.    lex  n'us),  and  had  obtained  his  free- 

Antonia  de   Termessibus,   Bruns,  dom    thereby.      The    inheritance 

Fontes*,  p.  94;  Liv.  1,38;  7,31;  might  include   among   the  slaves 

9,9;  Cic.  in   Verr.  2,  2,  16,  39;  his  own  near  relations,  whom  he 

ad  Att.  6,1,  15.  could    then    manumit.       A    man 

ii.   filium  aut  fratrem:    since  might  manumit  his  brother  where 

slaves  are  without  proprietary  and  the  father  had  had  a  child  born 

family  rights,  it  may  be  questioned  from  a  slave  woman  and  also  an- 

how  a  father  can  manumit  his  own  other  born  from  a  legal  marriage, 

son  or  daughter.   Such  a  case  could  The  latter  (filius  legitinms) ,  upon 

arise  where  a  slave  father  had  been  succession  to  his  father's   estate, 

96 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  i,  6 


Non  tamen  cuicumque  volenti  manumittere 
licet.  Nam  is  qui  in  fraudem  creditorum  manu- 
mittit  nihil  agit,  quia  lex  Aelia  Sentia  impedit  libertatem. 
Licet  autem  domino,  qui  solvendo  non  est,  testamento 

5  servum  suum  cum  libertate  heredem  instituere,  ut  fiat  liber 
heresque  ei  solus  et  necessarius,  si  modo  nemo  alius  ex  eo 
testamento  heres  extiterit,  aut  quia  nemo  heres  scriptus 
sit,  aut  quia  is  qui  scriptus  est  qualibet  ex  causa  heres  non 
extiterit.  Idque  eadem  lege  Aelia  Sentia  provisum  est  et 

10  recte :  valde  enim  prospiciendum  erat,  ut  egentes  homines, 
quibus  alius  heres  extaturus  non  esset,  vel  servum  suum 
necessarium  heredem  habeant,  qui  satisfacturus  esset  credi- 


would  become  master  of  the  former 
(fratrem  natnralem}. 

2.  in  fraudem  creditorum :  the 
lex  Aelia  Sentia  further  provided 
that  the  manumission  of  slaves 
which  impaired  the  rights  of  cred- 
itors was  void  ab  initio,  when  the 
owner  was  already  insolvent  or  be- 
cameso  by  reason  of  the  diminution 
of  his  assets  caused  by  such  a  man- 
umission (alienatio  in  fraudem 
creditortim).  If  the  creditors 
failed  to  question  the  manumission 
as  fraudulent,  the  slave  was  con- 
sidered free ;  or  if  the  liabilities 
of  the  master  were  satisfied  before 
the  manumission  was  impugned, 
the  slave  was  free. 

4.  solvendo  non  est :  insolvent. 
This  use  of  the  dat.  of  the  gerund 
is  frequent  in  legal  Latin.  See 
H.  542,  II;  L.  2257;  A.  &  G. 
505. 

6.  heres  solus  et  necessarius : 
since  the  heir  originally  assumed  all 

ROMAN    LAW  —  7  97 


the  liabilities  of  the  deceased,  an  in- 
heritance might  prove  to  be  such  a 
burden,  especially  if  insolvent,  that 
it  would  be  refused.  It  was  custom- 
ary, therefore,  for  an  insolvent  tes- 
tator to  institute  his  slave  alone  as 
obligatory  heir  (i.e.  solus  et  neces- 
sarius), who,  .in  return  for  the  as- 
sumption of  liabilities  and  the  duty 
of  performing  the  proper  funeral 
rites,  etc.,  obtained  freedom  and 
citizenship  (praesumptio  liberta- 
tis).  The  slave  then  received  the 
stigma  resulting  from  bankrupt 
proceedings  and  relieved  the  mem-  • 
ory  of  the  deceased  from  the  en- 
suing ignominy  (necessarius  heres 
est  servus  cum  libertate  heres  in- 
stitutus,  ideo  sic  appellatus,  quia 
sive  ve'lit  sive  nolit  omni  modo  post 
mortem  testatoris  protinus  liber  et 
heres  est,  Gai.  2,  153). 

10.  egentes  homines :  bankrupts. 

n.   vel  .  .  .  aut:   rare  as  cor- 
relatives. 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

toribus,  aut  hoc  eo  non  faciente  creditores  res  hereditarias 
servi  nomine  vendant,  ne  iniuria  defunctus  afficiatur. 
Idemque  iuris  est  et  si  sine  libertate  servus  heres  institutus 
est.  Quod  nostra  constitutio  non  solum  in  domino,  qui 

5  solvendo  non  est,  sed  generaliter  constituit  nova  humani- 
tatis  ratione,  ut  ex  ipsa  scriptura  institutionis  etiam  libertas 
ei  competere  videatur,  cum  non  est  verisimile  eum,  quern 
heredem  sibi  elegit,  si  praetermiserit  libertatis  dationem, 
servum  remanere  voluisse  et  neminem  sibi  heredem  fore. 

10  In  fraudem  autem  creditorum  manumittere  videtur,  qui  vel 
iam  eo  tempore  quo  manumittit  solvendo  non  est,  vel  qui 
datis  libertatibus  desiturus  est  solvendo  esse.  Praevaluisse 
tamen  videtur,  nisi  animum  quoque  fraudandi  manumissor 
habuit,  non  impediri  libertatem,  quamvis  bona  eius  credi- 

15  toribus  non  sufficiant ;    saepe   enim    de   facultatibus   suis 


1.  hoc  eo  non  faciente:  'or  if 
the  slave  should  not  do  this,  that 
the  creditors  may  sell  the  estate.1 

2.  ne  iniuria  afficiatur :  the  per- 
sonal disgrace  (iniuria)  attaching 
to  the  memory  of  the  dead,  and 
caused  by  the  sale  of  property  for 
the  liquidation  of  debts,  was  here 
transferred  to  the  insolvent  debt- 
or's slave  (;//  ignominia,  quae  ac- 
cidit  ex  venditione  honor  urn,  hnnc 
potius  heredem  qnam  ipsum  testa- 
tor em  contingat,  Gai.  2,  154). 

6.  ex  ipsa  scriptura :  '  by  the 
mere  appointment  of  a  slaveas  heir, 
the  gift  of  liberty  is  implied.' 

7.  cum  non  est :  '  for  it  is  un- 
likely that  the  testator  (enni),  even 
if  he  has  neglected  to  mention  the 
direct  grant  of  liberty,  wished  that 


the  one  whom  he  has  designated 
as  his  heir  should  remain  a  slave, 
and  that  he  himself  should  have 
no  heir.' 

9.  neminem  sibi  heredem  fore  : 
the  slave,  having  no  legal  capacity, 
could,  of  course,  not  take  the  in- 
heritance (i.e.  he  lacked  testamenti 
factio  passiva)  without  the  datio 
libertatis  (expressed  or  implied) 
which  operates  immediately  after 
the  testator's  death. 

13.  animum  fraudandi  habuit: 
in  questions  of  fraud,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  fact,  as  well  as  the  inten- 
tion, be  considered  (fraudis  inter- 
pretatio  semper  in  hire  civili  non 
ex  eventit  dumfa.vat,  sed  ex  con- 
silio  quoque  desideratur,  D.  50, 
17,79)- 


98 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


amplius  quam  in  his  est   sperant  homines.     Itaque  tune 
intellegimus  impediri  libertatem,  cum  utroque  modo  frau- 
dantur  creditores,  id  est  et  consilio  manumittentis  et  ipsa 
re,  eo  quod  bona  non  suffectura  sunt  creditoribus. 
5  Lex  Fufia  Caninia  iubet  testamento  ex  tribus 

Ulp.  i,  24  .     . 

servis  non  plures  quam  duos  manumitti,  et  usque 
ad  X  dimidiam  partem  manumittere  concedit ;  a  X  usque 
ad  XXX  tertiam  partem,  ut  tamen  adhuc  quinque  manu- 
mittere liceat  aeque  ut  ex  priori  numero  ;  a  triginta  usque 
10  ad  centum  quartam  partem,  aeque  ut  decem  ex  superiori 
numero  liberari  possint ;  a  centum  usque  ad  quingentos 
partem  quintam,  similiter  ut  ex  antecedenti  numero  viginti 
quinque  possint  fieri  liberi.  Et  denique  praecipit,  ne  plures 


3.  ipsa  re,  eo  quod  :' and  in  fact, 
that  is,  because.1 

5.  Lex  Fufia  Caninia:  the  design 
of  Augustus  in  enacting  this  law 
(8  A.D.)  was  to  impose  restrictions 
on  wholesale  and  reckless  freeing 
of  slaves.  The  sources  state  that 
the  Romans,  in  emancipating 
slaves  in  such  great  numbers,  were 
actuated  by  generosity,  avarice,  or 
weakness  ;  some  desired  to  reward 
faithful  service ;  others,  to  obtain 
in  the  name  of  their  freedmen 
(litre  patronatus)  the  grain  dis- 
tributed to  poor  citizens  from  the 
public  crib  ;  still  others  sought  to 
gratify  personal  vanity  by  mak- 
ing provision  for  brilliant  funeral 
pageants,  attended  by  numerous 
freedmen,  witnesses  of  the  testators' 
generosity,  even  in  death.  Reck- 
less manumission  during  the  mas- 
ter's lifetime  was  regulated  chiefly 


by  economic  reasons  —  lessening 
of  property  ;  but  Augustus  sought 
to  restrict  the  foolish  gratification 
of  vanity,  which  was  really  at  the 
expense  of  the  heir.  His  policy 
of  caution  in  extending  the  Roman 
franchise  and  emancipating  slaves 
was  recommended  in  his  will  for 
future  observance.  Justinian  re- 
pealed the  lex  Fufia  as  inappro- 
priate to  his  time. 

8.  ut  adhuc  quinque  manu- 
mittere liceat :  it  was  allowable 
that  the  lowest  number  of  any 
higher  class  equal  the  highest 
number  of  each  preceding  class, 
otherwise,  although  the  owner 
of  ten  slaves  could  manumit  five 
{dimidiam  partetti),  the  owner 
of  twelve  could  not  manumit 
more  than  four  (tertiam  partem) 
and  so  on  up.  Cf.  also  Gai.  i, 
45- 


99 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


omnino  quam  centum  ex  cuiusquam  testamento  liberi  fiant. 
Eadem  lex  cavet,  ut  libertates  servis  testamento  nominatim 
dentur. 

Si  testamento  scriptis  in  orbem  servis  libertas 
data  sit,  quia  nullus  ordo  manumissionis  inveni- 
tur,  nulli  liberi  erunt,  quia  lex  Fufia  Caninia,  quae  in 
fraudem  eius  facta  sint,  rescindit. 

FREEDOM  ACQUIRED  WITHOUT  CONSENT  OF  MASTER 


Gai.  i,  46 


Servo,  quern  pro  derelicto  dominus  ob  gravem 
infirmitatem  habuit,  ex  edicto  divi  Claudii  com- 
10  petit  libertas. 


Modest.  .D. 
40,  8,  2 


2.  libertates  testamento  nomina- 
tim dentur :  the  manumission  of 
all  above  the  lawful  number  was 
void.  The  provisions  of  the  lex 
Fnfia  might  otherwise  be  avoided, 
either  by  omitting  the  names  of 
slaves  (e.g.  I  manumit  '  all  my 
slaves ')  or  by  writing  their  names 
in  a  circle  so  that  the  separation 
of  those  in  excess  of  the  limit  was 
impossible  (libertas  non  videbatiir 
posse  incertae  personae  dari,  Inst. 
2,  20,  25). 

Freedom  acquired  without  Con- 
sent of  Master :  under  the  empire 
it  was  the  policy  of  the  law  to  en- 
courage manumission  (to  a  rea- 
sonable degree)  and  to  protect  the 
slave  against  cruelty.  Reforms 
begun  by  the  earlier  emperors 
were  continued  by  some  of  the 
Christian  emperors,  though  it 
should  be  remarked  that  the  in- 
fluence of  Christianity  on  the  spirit 


of  Roman  legislation  is  probably 
overrated.  Social  and  economic 
reasons  were  more  prominent  in 
ameliorating  the  condition  of 
slaves.  After  the  Servile  Wars  in 
Sicily  and  elsewhere  at  different 
times,  the  dangers  from  a  con- 
certed uprising  of  slaves,  driven 
by  maltreatment  to  deeds  of  vio- 
lence, were,  as  is  shown  by  the 
legislation  of  Augustus,  felt  to  be 
menacing.  The  Romans  possessed 
such  a  vast  amount  of  property  in 
slaves,  the  public  welfare  was  a 
stronger  motive  in  legislation  than 
was  evangelic  humanity.  Abuse 
of  property  was  regarded  then  as 
now  as  an  infringement  of  the 
public  welfare  (expedit  eniin  rei 
publicae,  ne  quis  re  sna  utatur 
male,  Inst.  i,  8,  2).  Milman, 
Latin  Christianity,  I,  p.  493.  In 
certain  exceptional  cases  freedom 
was  acquired  under  the  empire 


IOO 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

just.  c.  Sed  scimus  etiam  hoc  esse  in  antiqua  Latini- 

7-  6-  I>  3         tate  ex  edicto  divi  Claudii  introductum,  quod,  si 

quis   servum    suum   aegritudine    periclitantem    sua   domo 

publice  eiecerit  neque  ipse  eum  procurans  neque  alii  eum 

5  commendans,  cum  erat  ei  libera  facultas,  si  non  ipse  ad 

eius   curam    sufficeret,  in  xenonem  eum    mittere  vel  quo 

poterat  modo  eum  adiuvare,  huiusmodi  servus  in  libertate 

Latina  antea  morabatur  et,  quern  ille  moriendum  dereliquit, 

eius  bona  iterum,  cum  moreretur,  accipiebat.     Talis  itaque 

10  servus   libertate   necessaria   a   domino  et  nolente  re  ipsa 

donatus  fiat  ilico  civis  Romanus  nee  aditus  in  iura  patro- 

natus  quondam  domino  reservetur.    Quern  enim  a  sua  domo 

suaque  familia  publice  reppulit  neque  ipse  eum  procurans 

.     neque  alii  commendans   neque   in  venerabilem    xenonem 

15  eum  mittens  neque  consueta  ei  praebens  salaria,  maneat 

ab  eo  eiusque  substantia  undique  segregatus  tarn  in  omni 

without  the  owner's  consent  (sine  That  Latin   citizenship  is   meant 

mamtinissione)  :    as  a  reward  for  which  was  introduced  by  the  lex 

the   detection   of   certain    crimes,  lunia  Norbana,  whereby  freedom 

e.g.  when  a  slave  discovered  the  with   a   qualified   citizenship   was 

murderer  of  his  master,  according  granted,    i.e.    with    commercium 

to  a  SC  under  Augustus  ;  in  cases  only,  a  right  to  be  distinguished 

of  negligent  and  cruel  treatment,  from  the  more  ancient  ius  Latii 

as  when   a   master  abandoned  a  aim   conubio  et  commercio.      Cf. 

sick  or  infirm  slave,  according  to  note  on  libertorum,  p.  89. 
a  SC  under  Claudius ;  in  various  1 1 .   aditus  in  iura  patronatus : 

cases  after  Trajan,  where  libera-  see  note  onpatrono,  p.  iO3,forfur- 

tion  was  effected  by  the  interven-  ther  explanation, 
tion  of  a  magistrate;  after  a  law  12.    quondam :  this  adjective  use 

of  Leo,  by  appointment  to  certain  of  the  word  in  the  sense  of  former, 

court  offices  ;  and  after  Justinian's  late,  etc.  (not  necessarily  of  those 

enactment,  by  the  assumption  of  deceased),  is  very  common  in  legal 

priestly  orders.  Latin. 

i.  antiqua  Latinitate  :  antiqua  15.  maneat abeo: 'let  the quon- 
is  used  with  reference  to  the  time  of  dam  master  be  deprived  of  all  inter- 
Justinian  (scimus,  i.e.  Justinian).  est  in  him  and  his  property,  not  only 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

tempore  vitae   liberti   quam  cum  moriatur  nee  non  post- 
quam  iam  fuerit  in  fata  sua  concessus. 
Marcian.  D.        Qui   ob    necem    detectam   domini    praemium 
40-8,5  libertatis  consequitur,  fit  orcinus  libertus. 

5  Paul.  D.  Si  servus  venditus  est,  ut  intra  certum  tempus 

4°. 8- !  manumitteretur,  etiamsi  sine  herede  decessissent 
et  venditor  et  emptor,  servo  libertas  competit ;  et  hoc  divus 
Marcus  rescripsit.  Sed  et  si  mutaverit  venditor  volunta- 
tem,  nihilo  minus  libertas  competit. 


10  Ulp.  D. 
37.  IS.  9 


RELATION  OF  PATRON  AND  FREEDMAN 

Liberto  et  filio  semper  honesta  et  sancta  per- 
sona patris  ac  patroni  videri  debet. 


during  the  entire  lifetime  of  the 
freedman  and  at  his  death,  but 
also  after  his  death  forever.1 

4.  orcinus  libertus :  cf.  note  on 
testamento,  p.  91. 

6.   sine  herede :  hence  the  slave 
is     without    a    master    to    carry  ^ 
out    the    intention ;     freedom    is 
nevertheless  acquired  by  operation 
of  law. 

Relation  of  Patron  and  Freed- 
man :  although  since  the  time  of 
Servius  Tullius  (Dion.  4,  22)  a  lib- 
ertinus  became  a  Roman  citizen 
when  his  manumissor  was  a  citi- 
zen, nevertheless  the  position  of 
libertinus  differs  from  that  of  the 
ingennus  (a)  in  the  department 
of  public  law,  where  the  former 
possessed  limited  public  rights 
only,  and  (b)  in  the  peculiar  rela- 
tion which  the  libertinus  sustained 


toward  his  manumissor  or  patro- 
nus.  Among  public  rights,  freed- 
men  lacked  the  ins  honor um ;  eli- 
gibility to  the  senate  and  to  the 
office  oidecurio ;  and  qualifications 
for  serving  in  the  legio.  Preten- 
sion to  these  privileges  was  pun- 
ished as  a  misdemeanor.  They 
possessed  the  private  rights  of 
conubium  and  commercium.  The 
peculiar  relation  which  the  freed- 
man bore  toward  his  patron  arose 
from  the  idea  that  manumission 
was  of  the  nature  of  rebirth.  The 
freedman  owed  his  legal  personal- 
ity and  his  name  (iiomen  gentili- 
ciuiii)  to  his  patron,  and,  in  return, 
was  bound  to  filial  duty  and  obedi- 
ence, as  a  son,  even  when  freed 
from  patria  potestas,  was  bound 
to  his  father  (honesta  et  sancta 
persona  patris  ac  patroni) . 


102 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Paul.  D.  Ingratus  libertus  est,  qui  patrono  obsequium 

37, 14, 19        non  praestat  vel  res  eius  filiorumve  tutelam  ad- 
ministrare  detractat. 
uip.  D.  Patronorum  querellas  adversus  libertos  prae- 

5  37. 14.  i  sides  audire  et  non  translaticie  exsequi  debent, 
cum,  si  ingratus  libertus  sit,  non  impune  ferre  eum  oporteat. 
Sed  si  quidem  inofficiosus  patrono  patronae  liberisve  eorum 
sit,  tantummodo  castigari  eum  sub  comminatione  aliqua 
severitatis  non  defuturae,  si  rursum  causam  querellae  prae- 

10  buerit,  et  dimitti  oportet.  Enimvero  si  contumeliam  fecit 
aut  convicium  eis  dixit,  etiam  in  exilium  temporale  dari 
debebit;  quod  si  manus  intulit,  in  metallum  dandus  erit; 
idem  et  si  calumniam  aliquam  eis  instruxit  vel  delatorem 
subornavit  vel  quam  causam  adversus  eos  temptavit. 


i .  patrono  obsequium  non  prae- 
stat :  the  freedman  owes  respect 
and  obedience  to  his  patron  (reve- 
rentia,  obsequium).  Violation  of 
this  duty  was  punishable  by  private 
chastisement  (levis  coercitio),  by 
fines,  and  by  return  to  slavery 
(revocatio  in  servitutem,  cf.  note 
on  iure  civili,  p.  80).  The  freed- 
man was  forbidden  to  bring  an 
action  against  his  patron,  or  his 
patron's  parents  or  children,  with- 
out the  permission  of  a  magistrate, 
and  he  was  also  bound  to  support 
any  or  all  of  these  in  case  of  need. 
The  freedman  owes  his  patron  cer- 
tain services  (operae  liberti  offi- 
ciates), such  as  the  management  of 
the  latter's  property  and  the  tute- 
lage of  his  children,  along  with  vari- 
ous other  services  and  obligations 
(libertatis  causa  imposita').  The 


patron  and  his  children  acquired 
the  rights  of  inheritance  to  in- 
testate freedmen,  as  well  as  guar- 
dianship over  them  for  life. 

5.  translaticie  exsequi :  punish 
lightly  ;  trans-laticie(ferre), '  that 
which  has  been  handed  over '  (cf. 
edict um  translaticium,  Introd.  5), 
then,  '  usual ' ;  and  eventually, 
'  negligently,  lightly.' 

ii.  convicium:  convicium  ap- 
pellatur  quasi  convocium  .  .  .  non 
otnne  maledictum  convicium  esse, 
sed  id  soluw,  quod  vociferatione 
dictum  est,  sive  unus  sive  plures 
dixerint,  D.  47,  10,  15.  Cf.  note 
on  convicitim,  p.  251. 

13.  calumniam  :  '  malicious 
prosecution1  (calumniator es  ap- 
pellati  sunt,  quia  per  fraudem  et 
frustrationem  alias  vexarent  liti- 
bus,  D.  50,  1 6,  233). 


103 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

DEFINITION  OF  THE  TERM  FAMILY  (Familia) 

uip.  D.  Familiae  appellatio  qualiter  accipiatur,  videa- 

50, 16, 195,  i  rnus.  Et  quidem  varie  accepta  est ;  nam  et  in 
res  et  in  personas  deducitur.  In  res,  ut  puta  in  lege  duo- 
decim  tabularum  his  verbis  '  adgnatus  proximus  familiam 
5  habeto.'  Ad  personas  autem  refertur  familiae  significatio 
ita,  cum  de  patrono  et  liberto  loquitur  lex:  'ex  ea  familia,' 
inquit,  '  in  earn  familiam ' :  et  hie  de  singularibus  personis 
legem  loqui  constat.  Familiae  appellatio  refertur  et  ad 
corporis  cuiusdam  significationem,  quod  aut  iure  proprio 
10  ipsorum  aut  communi  universae  cognationis  continetur. 
lure  proprio  familiam  dicimus  plures  personas,  quae  sunt 
sub  unius  potestate  aut  natura  aut  iure  subiectae,  ut 
puta  patrem  familias,  matrem  familias,  filium  familias, 
filiam  familias  quique  deinceps  vicem  eorum  sequuntur, 


Definition  of  the  Term  Family :  common  paternal  authority.     One 

familia  has  a  much  wider  mean-  not  subject  to  such  authority  and 

ing  than  our  word,  family.    Instead  independent    of    family    subordi- 

of  the  natural  ties  of  blood  and  nation   is  persona  sui  luris,  and 

affection,    the    Roman    family  is  such  a  person,  as  constituting  the 

based  upon  a  purely  legal  concept,  head  of  an   independent  familia 

having  as  a  bond  of  union  a  civil  is  called  paterfamilias  or  mater- 

and  an  artificial  tie.    Familia  em-  familias.      The  paterfamilias  is 

braces  everything  subordinated  to  possessor  of  all  the  private  rights 

the  private  authority  of  a  Roman  of  a  Roman  citizen  and  is  capable 

citizen.     Things  (res)  as  well  as  of  exercising  domestic  authority. 

men,  free  and  slaves ;  property  as  Those  free   persons  subjected  to 

well  as  persons  —  all  are  included  the  authority  of  another,  to  whom 

within  the  conception  of  this  term.  their  independent   will  is  surren- 

Designating    individuals,    it    em-  dered,  are  personae  alieni  iuris. 

braces  all  of  common  lineage  and  Of  these  persons  there  are  three 

all  bound  together  in  a  family  re-  classes  :    (a)   personae  in  patria 

lation  by  a  legal  act  (£.£-.  adoption),  potestate]    (b)    uxor    in   maun; 

who  were  or  are  subjected  to  a  (c)  personae  in  mancipio,  cf.  Gai. 

104 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

ut  puta  nepotes  et  neptes  et  deinceps.  Pater  autem  fami- 
lias  appellatur,  qui  in  domo  dominium  habet,  recteque  hoc 
nomine  appellatur,  quamvis  filium  non  habeat ;  non  enim 
solam  personam  eius,  sed  et  ius  demonstramus ;  denique 
5  et  pupillum  patrem  familias  appellamus.  Et  cum  pater 
familias  moritur  quotquot  capita  ei  subiecta  fuerint,  singu- 
las  familias  incipiunt  habere ;  singuli  enim  patrum  f amilia- 
rum  nomen  subeunt.  Idemque  eveniet  et  in  eo  qui 
emancipatus  est ;  nam  et  hie  sui  iuris  effectus  propriam 
10  familiam  habet.  Communi  iure  familiam  dicimus  omnium 
adgnatorum  ;  nam  etsi  patre  familias  mortuo  singuli  singu- 
las  familias  habeixt,  tamen  omnes,  qui  sub  unius  potestate 
fuerunt,  recte  eiusdem  familiae  appellabuntur,  qui  ex  eadem 
domo  et  gente  proditi  sunt.  Servitutium  quoque  solemus 


i,  49.  For  servi  in  dominica 
potestate,  see  note  on  de  mamt, 
p.  88. 

i.  Pater  familias  appellatur,  qui 
in  domo  dominium  habet':  it  is  ap- 
parent that  paterfamilias  does  not 
signify  or  imply  paternity,  but  one 
who  is  not  in  patria  potestate,  i.e. 
a  homo  sui  iuris,  whether  he  be 
infant  or  adult,  married  or  un- 
married. 

4.  ius  demonstramus :  ius  means 
here  '  legal  position.1 

8.  qui  emancipatus  est :  as  early 
as  the  Twelve  Tables,  the  lifelong 
authority  of  ti\z  paterfamilias  could 
be  interrupted  by  the  formal  alien- 
ation of  a  son  by  three  sales,  of 
other  liberi  by  one  sale :  filius 
quidem  tribus  mancipationibus , 
ceteri  vero  liberi  (i.e.  grandchil- 


dren, daughters,  etc.),  sive  mascu- 
lini  sexus  sive  feminini  ima 
mancipatione  exeunt  de  parent mn 
potestate ;  lex  enim  Xlf  tabu- 
larum  tantum  in  persona  filii  de 
tribus  mancipationibus  loquitur 
his  verbis  'si  pater  filium  ter 
venum  duit,  a  patre  filius  liber 
esto?  Gai.  i,  132. 

10.  familiam  omnium  adgna- 
torum :  see  note,  p.  107,  for  expla- 
nation of  agnatic  family. 

14.  Servitutium  :  the  gen.  plur. 
of  this  word,  otherwise  rare,  is  fre- 
quent in  the  Digest.  Servitus  is 
used  here  for  the  concrete  servi- 
tinm,  meaning '  slaves.'  Mommsen 
proposes  the  reading  sermtiurn 
quoque  solemus  appellare  famil- 
iam, i.e.  '  we  usually  designate 
slaves,  too,  by  the  vfordfamih'a.'1 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM    THE    ROMAN    LAW 


appellare  familias,  ut  in  edicto  praetoris  ostendimus  sub 
titulo  de  furtis,  ubi  praetor  loquitur  de  familia  publicano- 
rum.  Sed  ibi  non  omnes  servi,  sed  corpus  quoddam  ser- 
vorum  demonstratur  huius  rei  causa  paratum,  hoc  est 

5  vectigalis  causa.  Alia  autetn  parte  edicti  omnes  servi 
continentur,  ut  de  hominibus  coactis  et  vi  bonorum  rap- 
torum,  item  redhibitoria,  si  deterior  res  reddatur  emptoris 
opera  aut  familiae  eius,  et  interdicto  unde  vi  familiae 
appellatio  omnes  servos  comprehendit.  Sed  et  filii  con- 

10  tinentur.  Item  appellatur  familia  plurium  personarum, 
quae  ab  eiusdem  ultimi  genitoris  sanguine  proficiscuntur 
(sicuti  dicimus  familiam  luliam),  quasi  a  fonte  quodam 


2.  ubi  praetor  loquitur  de  fa- 
milia publicanorum :  for  this  usage 
see  D.  39, 4, 1 2,  familiae  aittem  ap- 
pellatione  hie  servilem  familiam 
contineri  sciendiim  est  .  .  .  pub- 
licani  aittem  dicuntur,  qui  publica 
vectigalia  habent  conduct  a. 

6.  ut  (sc.  in  edicto)  de  homini- 
bus :  for  this  usage  see  D.  47,  8, 2. 

7.  redhibitoria  :  sc.  actione.  See 
e.g.  D.  21,  i,  i  and  25,  sive  ipse 
deteriorem    eum    (sermtnt)   fecit 
sive  familia  eius  sive  procurator, 
tenebit  actio,  i.e.  an  action  for  the 
rescinding  of  a  contract  of  sale 
(redhibere,  i  to  restore  to  a  former 
condition'),  if  the  thing  sold  has 
diminished  in  value. 

8.  interdicto  unde  vi :   see  e.g. 
D.  43,  16,  i,  15.     The  interdict 
unde  vi  (so  called  from  its  initial 
words)    was  a    magisterial    order 
whereby  one  deprived  of  property 
by  violence    might    recover  pos- 


session. The  cases  mentioned 
here  are  all  examples  of  technical 
remedies  granted  by  the  praetor 
and  the  aedile  in  their  edicts,  cf. 
Introd.  5,  on  the  nature  of  the 
edict. 

12.  quasi  a  fonte  quodam  me- 
moriae :  it  is  somewhat  doubtful 
what  this  means.  For  quodam 
memoriae,  Mommsen  reads  eodem 
ortae,  as  if  the  text  were  corrupt. 
But  memoria  seems  to  have  a  some- 
what similar  meaning,  D.  50,  16, 
220,  3,  etenim  idcirco  filios  filiasve 
concipimus  atque  edimus,  ut  ex 
prole  eorum  earumve  diuturni- 
tatis  nobis  memoriam  in  aevum 
relinquamus,  i.e.  '  that  we  may 
leave  a  memorial  of  our  ancient 
lineage  for  all  time  to  come.''  In 
this  sense,  familia  is  used  as  if 
it  were  a  fonte  quodam  memoriae, 
i.e.  expressed  the  fountain  head 
of  our  ancestry.  Such  explana- 


106 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

memoriae.     Mulier  autem  familiae  suae  et  caput  et  finis 

est. 

Gai  D>  Familiae  appellatione  et  ipse  princeps  familiae 

5°. l6.  X96       continetur.     Feminarum  liberos  in  familia  earum 
5  non  esse  palam  est,  quia  qui  nascuntur,  patris   familiam 

sequuntur. 

Sui  iuris  sunt  familiarum  suarum  principes,  id 
est  pater  familiae  itemque  mater  familiae. 

uip.  D.  Patres  familiarum  sunt,  qui  sunt  suae  potesta- 

10  I-  6<  4  tis  sive  puberes   sive   impuberes  ;    simili   modo 

matres    familiarum,    filii    familiarum    et   filiae    quae   sunt 

in  aliena  potestate. 

THE  AGNATIC  FAMILY  {Familia  iuris  civilis) 

Vocantur  autem  agnati,  qui  legitima  cogna- 

Gai.  3>  i°  .  .  .  _        .  . 

tione  mncti  sunt.     Legitima  autem  cognatio  est 
15  ea,  quae  per  virilis  sexus   personas    coniungitur.     Itaque 

tions  are  common  in  legal  Latin,  of  her  husband ;  and  she  is  finis 

cf.  Paulus,  2,  12,  2,  depositum  est  familiae  suae,  because  her  children 

quasi  diu  posit  urn  ;    D.  39,  2,3,  are  in  the  familia  of  their  father. 
damnum  et  damnatio  ab  ademp-  10.  sive  puberes  sive  impuberes : 

tione  et  quasi  deminutione  patri-  girls  were  impuberes  until  the  com- 

monii  dicta  sunt ;  Ulpian,  D.  50,  pletion  of  the  twelfth  year  of  age  ; 

1 6,  31,  pratum  .  .  .  ex  eo  dictum,  boys,  originally  until  the  assump- 

quod  paratum    sit    ad  fructum  tion  of  the  toga  virilis,  but  later, 

capiendum,     etc.     (Kalb,     Roms  until  the  completion  of  the  four- 

Juristeti,  p.  44,  note  i).     Cf.  also  teenth  year. 

note  on  curias,  p.  45.  Agnatic  Family:  agnati  are  all 

i.   Mulier  familiae  suae  et  caput  of  those  who  are  under  the  same 

et  finis  est :  this  maxim  means  that  patria  potestas,  or  who  would  be 

a  woman  sui  iuris  constitutes  the  under  the  same  patria  potestas  if 

only  possible  member  of  her  own  the  common  ancestor  were  still  liv- 

family  ;  for  by  her  marriage  with  ing.    Agnation,  therefore,  includes 

manus  she  passes  into  thefamttia  not  only  those  sprung  from  a  com- 

107 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 

eodem  patre  nati  fratres  agnati  sibi  sunt,  qui  etiam  consan- 
guine! vocantur,  nee  requiritur,  an  etiam  matrem  eandem 
habuerint.  Item  patruus  fratris  filio  et  invicem  is  illi  ag- 
natus  est.  Eodem  numero  sunt  fratres  patrueles  inter  se, 
5  id  est  qui  ex  duobus  fratribus  progenerati  sunt,  quos  pleri- 
que  etiam  consobrinos  vocant.  Qua  ratione  scilicet  etiam 
ad  plures  gradus  agnationis  pervenire  poterimus. 

COGNATIC  RELATIONSHIP  {Familia  iuris  gentium) 

Paul.  D.  Nomen   cognationis   a   Graeca  voce    dictum 

38, 10,  io,  i  videtur :  crvyyevels  enim  illi  vocant,  quos  nos 
10  cognatos  appellamus.  Cognati  sunt  et  quos  adgnatos  lex 
duodecim  tabularum  appellat,  sed  hi  sunt  per  patrem  cog- 
nati  ex  eadem  familia ;  qui  autem  per  feminas  coniungun- 
tur,  cognati  tantum  nominantur. 

mon  ancestor,  but  also  those  brought  cial  tie  created  by  law.     The  old 

artificially  under  the  patria   PO-  law  recognized  the  agnatic  princi- 

testas  of  a  common  paterfamilias  pie  only,  but  through  the  agency 

(e.g.  by  adoptio,  in  manum  con-  of    the  praetor,   cognates  gained 

•ventio,  etc.)  ;  for  unlike  the  family  more  and  more  recognition,  until 

based  upon  blood  relationship,  the  finally,  under  the  imperial  legisla- 

ties  of  the  agnatic  family  may  be  tion,  the   cognatic  principle   pre- 

changed  at  will  (e.g.  by  marriage,  vailed. 

in  case  of  a  woman,  or  by  emanci-  1 1.    hi  sunt  per  patrem  cognati : 

pation).     The   family  peculiar  to  cognatio  is  used  in  two  senses.    In 

the  ius  civile  is.  the  agnatic  (cogna-  the  broader  meaning  of  the  word, 

tio  iegitimd),  whereas  that  of  the  it  includes  agnatio  —  all  cognates 

ius  gentium  is  the  cognatic  (cogna-  are  agnates,  but  the  reverse  is  not 

tio  naturalis, per fentin as).     Cog-  true.     In   the   narrower  sense,  it 

nati  are  those  whose  relationship  is  means    relationship    through    the 

based  on  the  ties  of  blood  instead  mother,  as  agnatio  means  relation- 

of  subjection  to  the  power  of  the  ship  through  the  father, 
same  paterfamilias.    Cognationis  12.    per  feminas  :    i.e.  de  fem- 

a  natural  tie ;  agnation,  an  artifi-  ina. 

1 08 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Modest.  D.  Cognati  ab  eo  dici  putantur,  quod  quasi  una 
38, 10,4,  i  communiterve  nati  vel  ab  eodem  orti  progenitive 
sint.  Cognationis  substantia  bifariam  apud  Romanes  in- 
tellegitur;  nam  quaedam  cognationes  iure  civili,  quaedam 

5  naturali  conectuntur,  nonnumquam  utroque  iure  concur- 
rente  et  naturali  et  civili  copulatur  cognatio.  Et  quidem 
naturalis  cognatio  .per  se  sine  civili  cognatione  intellegitur 
quae  per  feminas  descendit,  quae  volgo  liberos  peperit. 
Civilis  autem  per  se,  quae  etiam  legitima  dicitur,  sine  iure 

10  naturali  cognatio  consistit  per  adoptionem.  Vtroque  iure 
consistit  cognatio,  cum  iustis  nuptiis  contractis  copulatur. 
Sed  naturalis  quidem  cognatio  hoc  ipso  nomine  appellatur ; 
civilis  autem  cognatio  licet  ipsa  quoque  per  se  plenissime 
hoc  nomine  vocetur,  proprie  tamen  adgnatio  vocatur,  vide- 

15  licet  quae  per  mares  contingit. 

Coiiat.  Consanguinei  sunt  eodem  patre  nati,  licet  di- 

16, 3,  15  versis  matribus,  qui  in  potestate  f uerunt  mortis 
tempore ;  adoptivus  quoque  frater,  si  non  sit  emancipa- 
tus,  et  hi  qui  post  mortem  patris  nati  sunt  vel  causam 

20  probaverunt. 

uip.  D.  Inter  agnatos  igitur  et  cognatos  hoc  interest 

38, 10, 10,  4  quod  inter  genus  et  speciem  ;  nam  qui  est  ag- 
natus,  et  cognatus  est,  non  utique  autem  qui  cognatus  est, 
et  agnatus  est ;  alterum  enim  civile,  alterum  naturale 

25  nomen  est. 

19.    vel   causam    probaverunt:  niculi  causae probatio,  i.e.  by  rear- 

Patria   potestas    arises    primarily  ing  a  child  to  the  age  of  one  year 

by  birth  from  a  lawful  marriage,  and   furnishing  proof   of    confor- 

but     exceptionally     by     the     lex  mity  to  other  requirements  (cau- 

Aelia  Sentia,  in  the  case  of  Latini  sain  probare).    For  details  see  Gai. 

who  acquired  citizenship   by  an-  i,  29-31. 


109 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  i,  9,  i 


MARRIAGE 

Nuptiae  sive  matrimonium  est  viri  et  mulie- 
ris  coniunctio,  individuam  consuetudinem  vitae 
continens. 

Modest.  D.          Nuptiae  sunt  coniunctio  maris  et  feminae  et 
5  23. 2,  *  consortium  omnis  vitae,  divini  et  humani  iuris 

communicatio. 


Marriage  :  the  essence  of  a  Ro- 
man marriage,  distinguishing  it 
from  any  other  union  of  the  sexes 
(e.g.  concubinatiis,  contuberniuni), 
was  maritalis  affectio  (non  enim 
coitus  matrinw  ni umfacit,  sed  mari- 
talis affectio) .  Strictly  speaking,  no 
ceremony  was  required  for  entrance 
into  the  marriage  relation  ;  consent 
of  the  parties  concerned  and  a 
manifestation  of  maritalis  affectio 
were  sufficient.  With  reference  to 
the  legal  position  of  the  wife,  the 
Romans  recognized  different  kinds 
of  marriage.  The  earliest  marriage 
at  Rome  involved  the  transfer  of 
the  wife  from  the  family  of  her 
father  into  the  family  of  her  hus- 
band (in  manum  conventio), 
thereby  establishing  a  marital 
authority,  called  mamis  mariti, 
which  placed  the  wife  in  loco  filiae 
and  under  the  patria  potestas  of 
her  own  husband  (cf.  note  on 
Afanus,  p.  125).  As  early  as  the 
Twelve  Tables,  the  ius  civile  recog- 
nized a  marriage  without  mamis, 
by  which  the  wife  did  not  pass 
into  the  familia  of  her  husband, 
and  consequently  did  not  have 


legal  relationship  with  her  own 
children.  With  reference  to  the 
legal  consequences  of  marriage 
and  the  wife's  position,  the  Roman 
law  distinguishes  three  periods : 
marriage  with  matins;  separation 
of  marriage  and  mamis ;  and  the 
disappearance  of  warms.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  republic,  marriage 
without  manus  was  the  more  us- 
ual, and  under  the  empire  it  became 
the  only  marriage. 

i.  Nuptiae  sive  matrimonium: 
there  is  no  distinction  of  meaning 
discernible  in  the  legal  usage  of 
these  words. 

4.  Nuptiae  sunt  coniunctio  :  the 
second  definition  of  marriage  (by 
Modestinus)  explains  somewhat 
more  fully  that  of  the  Institutes. 
Indhndua  consuetude  vitae  of  the 
latter  denotes  a  continued  and  in- 
separable (individua  in  the  later 
meaning  of  ' inseparable,'  'perma- 
nent ')  union  of  man  and  woman, 
involving  a  community  of  all  the 
relations  of  life,  rank,  position, 
domicile,  etc.,  but  not  of  property. 
The  wife  /;/  tnanu  relinquished  all 
proprietary  rights  (si  quam  in  ma- 


110 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

lustum    matrimonium    est,    si   inter   eos.   qui 

Ulp.  5,  2 

nuptias  contrahunt,  conubium  sit,  et  tarn  mas- 
culus  pubes  quam  femina  potens  sit,  et  utrique  consentiant, 
si  sui  iuris  sint,  aut  etiam  parentes  eorum,  si  in  potestate 
5  sunt.  Conubium  est  uxoris  iure  ducendae  facultas.  Conu- 
bium habent  cives  Roman!  cum  civibus  Romanis;  cum 
Latinis  autem  et  peregrinis  ita,  si  concessum  sit.  Cum 
servis  nullum  est  conubium. 

lustas  autem  nuptias  inter  se  cives   Romani 

Inst.  i,  10 

10  contrahunt,    qui     secundum     praecepta     legum 

coeunt,  masculi  quidem  puberes,  feminae  autem  viripo- 
tentes,  sive  patres  familias  sint  sive  filii  familias,  dum 
tamen  filii  familias  et  consensum  habeant  parentum,  quo- 


num  ut  uxorem  receperimus,  ems 
res  ad  nos  transeunt,  Gai.  2,  98), 
while  in  a  marriage  sine  manu 
neither  party  had  rights  in  the 
property  of  the  other. 

1.  lustum  matrimonium :  atten- 
tion has  already  been  called  to  the 
distinction  between  marriage  iuris 
civilis,  requiring  comtbium  of  both 
parties  (iustum,  legitimum  matri- 
inoninin ;  iustae,legitimaenuptiae\ 
and  marriage  iuris  gentium,  not 
requiring    connbium    (non    legiti- 
nutni).    Only  the  former  produced 
patria  potestas  over  the  children 
of  the  marriage  (legit 'tmi). 

2.  masculus  pubes  :  cf.  note  on 
sive,  p.  107. 

9.  lustas  nuptias  inter  se  cives 
Romani :  a  legal  marriage  required 
the  fulfillment  of  the  following  con- 
ditions :  (a)  the  parties  must  have 
the  connbium  ;  (6)  they  must  con- 


sent and  give  due  evidence  of  their 
intention  to  marry,  and  if  they  are 
not  sui  tun's,  they  must  also  have 
the  consent  of  their  respective  pa- 
tresfamilias ;  (c)  they  must  be 
of  lawful  age  {puberes)  ;  (d)  they 
must  not  be  within  the  prohibited 
degrees  of  relationship. 

13.  consensum  habeant  paren- 
tum :  according  to  the  family  law  of 
the  ius  civile  a  son  remained  in  the 
lifelong  power  of  his  oldest  living 
ascendant  (whether  he  be  father, 
grandfather,  or  great-grandfather), 
hence  if  one's  father  and  a  higher 
ascendant  {e.g.  grandfather)  are 
both  living,  he  must  have  the  con- 
sent of  both  of  them  (itissum  pa- 
rentis  praecedere  debeat),  since  at 
the  death  of  the  grandfather  (A) 
the  father  (B)  becomes  paterfami- 
lias, and  the  latter's  son  (C)  might 
otherwise  have  introduced  mem- 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

rum  in  potestate  sunt.  Nam  hoc  fieri  debere  et  civilis  et 
naturalis  ratio  suadet  in  tantum,  ut  iussum  parentis  prae- 
cedere  debeat.  Vnde  quaesitum  est,  an  f uriosi  filia  nubere 
aut  furiosi  filius  uxorem  ducere  possit.  Cumque  super 

5  filio  variabatur,  nostra  processit  decisio,  qua  permissum  est 
ad  exemplum  filiae  furiosi  filium  quoque  posse  et  sine  patris 
interventu  matrimonium  sibi  copulare  secundum  datum 
ex  constitutione  modum. 

Eo  tempore,  quo  quis  uxorem  habet,  concu- 

10  binam  habere  non  potest.     Concubina  igitur  ab 

uxore  solo  dilectu  separatur. 


bers  into  his  (B's)  family  without 
his  (B's)  consent,  a  possibility 
which  was  contrary  to  the  spirit 
of  the  family  law.  This  question 
could  not  arise  in  the  case  of  a 
daughter,  because  she  introduced 
no  new  members  into  her  father's 
family  (cf.  note  on  Mulier,  p.  107). 
Parentes  in  this  connection  does 
not  mean  '  parents '  but  '  male  as- 
cendants.' 

4.  aut  furiosi  filius  uxorem  ducere 
possit :  as  consent  was  necessary, 
the  question  arose  whether  the  son 
of  a  madman  was  able  to  marry, 
since  his  father,  being  deprived  of 
reason,  could  not  give  consent 
{furor  contrahi  matrimonium  non 
sinit,  quia  consensu  opus  est,  sed 
recte  contractual  non  itnpedit,  D. 
23, 2, 1 6, 2) .  Justinian  determined 
a  number  of  ways  in  which  the 
children  of  madmen  might  make 
a  valid  marriage  (nostra  processit 
decisio,  C.  5,  4,  25). 


9.  concubinam  habere  non  potest: 
besides  legal  marriage  (inatrimo- 
niitin  iiistum,  etc.),  the  Roman  law 
recognized  and  controlled  a  per- 
manent union  called  concubinatus. 
a  form  of  marriage  of  inferior  right 
and  dignity.  Concubinatus  dif- 
fered from  matrimonium  in  the 
absence  of  maritalis  affectio,  and 
it  was  a  relation  most  often  entered 
into  between  a  manumissor  and 
his  liberta.  The  concubina  lacked 
the  dignitas  nwris  and  did  not 
enjoy  the  rank  and  position  of  her 
husband.  Children  from  such  a 
union  were  called  naturales  liberi 
and  were,  of  course,  not  subject  to 
patria  potestas,  though  they  were 
by  the  later  law  capable  of  becom- 
ing legit imi  by  the  marriage  of 
parents  who  were  eligible  to  a  le- 
gal marriage.  Among  the  Romans 
concubinatus,  like  matrimonium, 
was  strictly  monogamous  in  char- 
acter. 


112 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Gai.  i,  64 


Inter  servos  et  liberos  matrimomum  contrahi 

Paul.  2,  19,  6  . 

non  potest,  contubermum  potest.  Neque  funo 
sus  neque  furiosa  matrimonium  contrahere  possunt;  sed 
contractum  matrimonium  furore  non  tollitur. 

Si  quis  nefarias  atque  incestas  nuptias  con- 

traxerit,  neque  uxorem  habere  videtur  neque 
liberos;  itaque  hi,  qui  ex  eo  coitu  nascuntur,  matrem  qui- 
dem  habere  videntur,  patrem  vero  non  utique ;  nee  ob  id 
in  potestate  eius  sunt,  sed  tales  sunt  quales  sunt  hi,  quos 
10  mater  vulgo  concepit ;  nam  et  hi  patrem  habere  non  in- 
telleguntur,  cum  is  etiam  incertus  sit;  unde  solent  spurii 
filii  appellari,  vel  a  Graeca  voce  quasi  o-TropdSrjv  concepti, 
vel  quasi  sine  patre  filii. 


2.  contubernium  potest  :  no 
union  of  slaves  or  of  slaves  with  free- 
men was  recognized  as  marriage. 
Inasmuch  as  slaves  were  capable  of 
becoming  persons  by  manumission 
and  as  libertini  had  the  right  of 
marriage,  the  law  recognized  near 
relationship  among  slaves  as  a  bar 
to  their  intermarriage  after  manu- 
mission (illud  certiim  est  serviles 
cognationes  impedimenta  esse  nup- 
tiiSj  si  forte  pater  etfilia  autf rater 
et  soror  manumissi  fuerint,  Inst. 
I,  10,  10). 

4.  matrimonium  furore  non  tol- 
litur :  the  marriage  of  a  lunatic 
is  void  ab  initio,  but  subsequent 
lunacy  is  not  a  ground  for  dis- 
solving the  marriage  (furiosits 


nullum  negotium  gerere  potest, 
quia  non  intelligit  quid  agat,  Gai. 
3,  1 06). 

5.  Si  quis  nefarias  nuptias  con- 
traxerit :  such  a  union  is  void  ab 
initio,  and  the  issue  (incestuosi) , 
therefore,  follow  the  usual  rule  in 
such  cases  (part us  sequitur  ven- 
trern,  cf.  note  on  Ingenui,  p.  81). 
Children  quos  mater  vulgo  con- 
cepit are  to  be  distinguished  from 
those  issuing  from  concubinatus ; 
the  latter  are  naturales  and  as 
such  have  claim  upon  their  father 
for  support ;  the  former,  called 
spurii  (bastards),  were  depend- 
ent upon  their  mother  for  sup- 
port ;  and,  as  regards  paternity, 
were  filii  nullius. 


ROMAN   LAW  —  8 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


IMPEDIMENTS  TO  MARRIAGE 

A    quarundam    nuptiis    abstinere    debemus. 

Inter  eas  enim  personas,  quae  parentum  libero- 

rumve  locum  inter  se  obtinent,  nuptiae  contrahi  non  pos- 

sunt,  nee  inter  eas  conubium  est,  velut  inter  patrem  et  filiam, 

5  vel  inter  matrem  et  filium,  vel  inter  avum  et  neptem ;  et  si 

tales  personae  inter  se  coierint,  nefarias  et  incestas  nup- 

tias    contraxisse    dicuntur.       Et    haec    adeo   ita   sunt,    lit 

quamvis  per  adoptionem  parentum   liberorumve  loco  sibi 

esse  coeperint,  non  possint  inter  se  matrimonio  coniungi, 

10  in  tantum,  ut  etiam  dissoluta  adoptione  idem  iuris  maneat ; 

itaque  earn,  quae  mini  per  adoptionem  filiae  aut  neptis  loco 


Impediments  to  Marriage :  im- 
pediments to  marriage  are  either 
absolute  or  relative.  Absolute 
impediments,  rendering  marriage 
impossible  and  void  in  all  cases 
are :  lunacy,  infancy,  castration, 
and  an  existing  marriage ;  rela- 
tive, preventing  marriage  between 
certain  persons  only,  are,  near 
relationship,  differences  in  rank, 
the  official  position  of  the  hus- 
band, adultery  (after  18  B.C.), 
and  seduction  (after  Constan- 
tine). 

2.  parentum  liberorumve  locum 
inter  se  obtinent :  agnatic  as  well 
as  cognatic  relationship  in  the  di- 
rect line  (i.e.  between  ascendants 
and  descendants)  to  any  degree,  is 
always  an  impediment  to  marriage. 
This  is  true  also  although  the  re- 
lationship arose  through  adoption 
into  the  agnatic  family ;  for  even 


if  the  one  adopted  has  been 
emancipated  from  the  family,  the 
fiction  of  relationship  (as  if  by  a 
tie  of  blood)  is  still  maintained 
(idem  iuris  maneat).  In  the  col- 
lateral line,  however,  the  rule  is 
not  so  strict.  In  the  early  law, 
collaterals  to  the  fourth  degree 
could  not  marry  (consobrini)  but 
during  the  republic  first  cousins 
were  permitted  to  marry,  and  this 
continued  to  be  the  rule  in  the 
Eastern  empire,  although  not  so 
in  the  Western  empire.  After 
Claudius  it  was  legal  to  marry  a 
brother's  daughter  (relationship  of 
the  third  degree),  but  this  was 
forbidden  by  Christian  emperors. 
Adoption  in  the  collateral  line  did 
not  prevent  marriage  even  between 
brother  and  sister,  after  the  eman- 
cipation of  either  one  of  them 
(adoptio  dissoluta). 


114 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

esse  coeperit,  non  potero  uxorem  ducere,  quamvis  earn 
emancipaverim.  Inter  eas  quoque  personas,  quae  ex  trans- 
verso  gradu  cognatione  iunguntur,  est  quaedam  similis 
observatio,  sed  non  tanta.  Sane  inter  fratrem  et  sororem 
5  prohibitae  sunt  nuptiae,  sive  eodem  patre  eademque  matre 
nati  fuerint,  sive  alterutro  eorum ;  sed  si  qua  per  adoptio- 
nem  soror  mihi  esse  coeperit,  quamdiu  quidem  constat 
adoptio,  sane  inter  me  et  earn  nuptiae  non  possunt  con- 
sistere;  cum  vero  per  emancipationem  adoptio  dissoluta 

10  sit,  potero  earn  uxorem  ducere ;  sed  et  si  ego  emancipatus 
fuero,  nihil  impedimento  erit  nuptiis.  Fratris  filiam  uxorem 
ducere  licet,  idque  primum  in  usum  venit,  cum  divus 
Claudius  Agrippinam,  f  ratris  sui  filiam,  uxorem  duxisset ; 
sororis  vero  filiam  uxorem  ducere  non  licet.  Et  haec  ita 

15  principalibus  constitutionibus  significantur.  Item  amitam 
et  materteram  uxorem  ducere  non  licet.  Item  earn,  quae 
mihi  quondam  socrus  aut  nurus  aut  privigna  aut  noverca 
fuit.  Ideo  autem  diximus  'quondam,'  quia  si  adhuc  con- 
stant eae  nuptiae,  per  quas  talis  adfinitas  quaesita  est,  alia 

20  ratione  mihi  nupta  esse  non  potest,  quia  neque  eadem  duo- 
bus  nupta  esse  potest,  neque  idem  duas  uxores  habere. 

Fratris  vel  sororis  filiam  uxorem  ducere  non 

Inst.  i,  10, 3  .  . 

licet.     Sed  nee  neptem  fratns  vel  sororis  ducere 

16.  quae  mihi  quondam  socrus  aut  wife  and  a  '  deceased  wife's  sister1 

nurus  :  affinitas,  or  relationship  by  (i.e.    between   brother-in-law  and 

marriage,  was  the  tie  between  each  sister-in-law)  was  permitted  until 

one  of  a  married  pair  and  the  kin-  the    prohibitions    of   Constantine 

dred  of  the  other.     Intermarriage  and  several  later  emperors  (C.  5, 

among  affines  is  prohibited  in  the  5,  5). 

direct  line   (between    ascendants  22.   Fratris  vel  sororis  filiam  ux- 

and  descendants,  and  in  Christian  orem  ducere  non  licet :  the  legalizing 

times,  in  the  collateral  line  also).  of  the  marriage  of  a  man  with  his 

Marriage  with  a  deceased  brother's  brother's  daughter  (case  of  Clau- 

1*5 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

quis  potest,  quamvis  quarto  gradu  sint.  Cuius  enim  filiam 
uxorem  ducere  non  licet,  eius  neque  neptem  permittitur. 
Eius  vero  mulieris,  quam  pater  tuus  adoptavit,  filiam  non 
videris  impediri  uxorem  ducere,  quia  neque  naturali  neque 

5  civili  iure  tibi  coniungitur.     Duorum  autem   fratrum  vel 
sororum  liberi  vel  fratris  et  sororis  iungi  possunt. 

Mariti  tamen  films  ex  alia  uxore  et  uxoris  filia  ex  alio 
marito,  vel  contra,  matrimonium  recte  contrahunt,  licet 
habeant  fratrem  sororemve  ex  matrimonio  postea  contracto 

10  natos. 

Lege  lulia  prohibentur  uxores  ducere  senatores 

quidem  liberique  eorum  libertinas  et  quae  ipsae 

quarumve  pater  materve  artem  ludicram  fecerit,  item  cor- 

pore  quaestum  facientem.     Ceteri  autem  ingenui  prohiben- 

15  tur  ducere  lenam  et  a  lenone  lenave  manumissam  et  in 
adulterio  deprehensam  et  iudicio  publico  damnatam  et 
quae  artem  ludicram  fecerit. 

dius  and  Agrippina)  was  repealed  political  status  were  recognized  in 

by  Constantine,  hence  the  appar-  the  law  of  marriage  during  its  entire 

ent  contradiction  in  the  text  (cf.  history  prior  to  Justinian.  Origi- 

no\.tonparentum,p.  114).  It  was  nally  there  was  no  marriage  be- 

unlawful  to  marry  the  ascendant  tween  cives  and  peregrini.  Until 

or  descendant  of  one  already  with-  the  lex  Canuleia  (445  B.C.)  there 

in  the  prohibited  degree  (sororis  was  no  conubium  between  patri- 

filiam  .  .  .  nee  neptetii).  cians  and  plebeians.  During  the 

3.  Eius  mulieris,  quam  pater  republic,  ingenui  and  libertini  could 

tuus  adoptavit,  filiam :  asa';;w//w  intermarry,  but  with  a  loss  of  so- 

et  caput  et  finis  suae  familiae  estj  cial  standing  to  the  former.  The 

her  children  did  not  follow  her  lex  lulia  de  maritandis  ordinibus 

into  her  adoptive  family;  hence  (4  A. D.)  forbade  senators  and  their 

they  were  not  related  to  its  mem-  descendants  to  the  third  genera- 

bers  (neque  naturali  neque  civili  tion  to  marry  libertini  and  certain 

iure).  Cf.  note  on  Mulier,  p.  107.  other  classes  of  persons  disquali- 

ii.  senatores  liberique  eorum  fied  by  their  occupations  and  social 

libertinas :  differences  in  rank  and  status  (e.g.  infantes').  Ingenui 

116 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Paul.  D.  Si  quis  officium  in  aliqua  provincia  adminis- 

23-  2,  38  trat,  inde  oriundam  vel  ibi  domicilium  habentem 
uxorem  ducere  non  potest,  quamvis  sponsare  non  prohi- 
beatur. 

5  Paul.  D.  Senatus  consulto,   quo  cautum  est,  ne  tutor 

23. 2, 59         pupillam  vel  filio  suo  vel  sibi  nuptum  collocet, 
etiam  nepos  significatur. 
Paul.  D.  Non   est   matrimonium,   si  tutor  vel  curator 

23.2.66  pupillam     suam     intra    vicesimum    et    sextum 
10  annum   non  desponsam  a   patre   nee   testamento   destin- 

atam  ducat  uxorem  vel  earn  filio  suo  iungat :    quo  facto 
uterque   infamatur   et   pro   dignitate  pupillae  extra  ordi- 
nem  coercetur.     Nee  interest,  films  sui  iuris  an  in  patris 
potestate  sit. 
15  Tryph.  D.  Non  solum  vivo  tutori,  sed  et  post  mortem 

2.. 2, 67  ejus  films  tutoris  ducere  uxorem  prohibetur  earn, 
cuius  tutelae  rationi  obstrictus  pater  fuit. 

were  also  forbidden  to  marry  per-  with  the  completion  of  the  twenty- 
sons  of  the  last  mentioned  class.  fifth  year.  Until  that  time  the  pu- 
By  the  lex  lulia  such  marriages  pilli  required  the  assistance  of  a 
were  not  void,  but  were  penalized.  curator  in  the  management  of  their 
The  emperor  M.  Aurelius  declared  affairs  (masculi  piiberes  et  feminae 
them  void,  and  Justinian  made  -viripotentes  usque  ad  vicesimum 
them  completely  valid,  the  old  quintiim  annum  completiim  .  .  . 
differences  of  status  having  passed  licet  puberes  sint,  adhuc  huius  ae- 
away.  tatis  sunt,  ut  negotia  sua  tueri  non 

i.    Si  quis  officium  in  aliqua  pro-  possint,  Inst.  i,  23). 
vincia  administrat :   this   prohibi-  12.   uterque  infamatur :  i.e.  both 

tion,  directed  particularly  against  the  tutor  and  the  curator.     The 

the  marriage  of  governors  of  prov-  office  of  tutor  and  curator  was  a  pub- 

inces  and  of  soldiers  stationed  in  lie  duty   (inunus  publicuni),  and 

provinces,  was  prompted  by  public  such  a  marriage,  unless   directed 

welfare.  by  the  will  of  the  woman's  father, 

9.    intra  vicesimum  et   sextum  was  regarded  as  a  breach  of  trust 

annum :  full  majority  was  attained  and  contrary  to  public  policy. 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN    LAW 


Paul.  D. 

23,  2,  2 


Nuptiae  consistere  non  possunt  nisi  consenti- 
ant  omnes,  id  est  qui  coeunt  quorumque  in 

potestate  sunt. 

uip.  D.  Si  nepos  uxorem  velit  ducere  avo  furente,  om- 

5  23,  2, 9  nimodo  patris  auctoritas  erit  necessaria  ;  sed  si 

pater   furit,    avus   sapiat,    sufficit   avi  voluntas.     Is  cuius 

pater  ab  hostibus  captus  est,  si  non  intra  triennium  reverta- 

tur,  uxorem  ducere  potest. 

Pompon.  D.  Mulierem  absenti  per  litteras  eius  vel  per 
10  23. 2-  s  nuntium  posse  nubere  placet,  si  in  domum  eius 

deduceretur ;  earn  vero  quae  abesset  ex  litteris  vel  nuntio 

suo  duci  a  marito  non  posse ;  deductione  enim  opus  esse 

in  mariti,  non  in  uxoris  domum,  quasi  in  domicilium  ma- 

trimonii. 


i.  Nuptiae  consistere  non  pos- 
sunt :  absence  of  consent,  or  with- 
holding of  consent  (except  under 
certain  limitations) ,  was  an  impedi- 
ment to  marriage  (iiuptias  non  con- 
cubit  us  sed  consensus  facit,  D.  35, 
1,15).  As  marriage  in  the  earliest 
period  was  always  attended  by  ma- 
nusy  the  forms  of  acquiring  mantis 
and  the  forms  of  entering  marriage 
became  identified,  i.e.  confarreatio, 
coemptio,  and  usus  (cf.  note  on 
Afamts,  p.  125,  and  following 
notes).  In  the  later  law,  marriage 
without  manns  required  nothing 
more  than  the  consent  of  the 
parties,  openly  and  unequivocally 
manifested.  A  usual  manifestation 
of  consent  (though  no  part  of  the 
requirement  of  the  marriage  con- 


tract, except  when  the  husband  was 
absent)  was  the  deditctioin  domum 
mariti;  hence  the  marriage  could 
be  entered  into  if  the  consent  of 
the  man  was  expressed  by  letter 
or  messenger  (owing  to  his  ab- 
sence), and  if  the  consent  of  the 
woman  was  manifested  by  her  de- 
ductio  in  domum  by  the  relatives 
of  her  future  husband.  Owing  to 
this  requirement  of  delivery  of 
possession,  the  woman  must  be 
present  in  the  domicile  of  her 
husband. 

6.  Is  cuius  pater  .  .  .  uxorem 
ducere  potest :  this  applies  to  both 
sexes.  If  the  father  return  after 
the  period  of  three  years,  he  can- 
not dissolve  the  marriage  because 
of  his  disapproval. 


118 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Florent.  D. 
23,  i,  i 

UIp.  D. 

23,  I,  2 


BETROTHAL 

Sponsalia  sunt  mentio  et  repromissio  nupti- 
arum  futurarum. 

Sponsalia   autem    dicta    sunt    a   spondendo ; 
nam  moris  fuit  veteribus  stipulari  et  spondere 
5  sibi  uxores  futuras, 

Fiorent.  D.         unde  et  sponsi  sponsaeque  appellatio  nata  est. 
UI'P.'D.  Sufficit  nudus  consensus  ad  constituenda  spon- 

23.  i.  4  salia.     Denique  constat  et  absenti  absentem  de- 

sponderi  posse,  et  hoc  cottidie  fieri. 


Betrothal :  in  the  earliest  law, 
engagements  to  marry  were  made 
by  the  formal  sponsio  (cf.  note  on 
Verbis,  p.  205)  between  the  bride- 
groom and  the  bride's  father.  This 
form  of  betrothal  was  retained  in 
the  Latin  law  (i.e.  in  Latium),  and 
a  breach  of  promise  of  marriage 
was  actionable  and  satisfaction  was 
rendered  in  pecuniary  damages 
(Cell.  4,  4).  At  Rome,  however, 
no  action  lay  for  a  breach  of  prom- 
ise of  marriage,  since,  by  Roman 
law,  marriage  was  based  on  a  con- 
sensus nuptialis,  but  never  on  a 
consensus  sponsaltcius,  a  promise 
of  future  marriage.  Still,  in  prac- 
tice, marriage  was  often  preceded 
by  an  informal  agreement  to  marry, 
given  either  by  the  consent  of  the 
affianced  pair  or  by  that  of  their 
patresfamilias.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  son  had  the  unquestioned  right 
of  rejection,  while  the  daughter 
could  refuse  only  on  account  of  the 
unworthiness  or  immoral  charac- 


ter of  the  intended  husband.  Be- 
trothal required  that  each  party  be 
seven  years  of  age,  i.e.  iinpiiberes 
might  enter  into  an  informal  agree- 
'ment  to  a  future  marriage.  Either 
party  might  recall  his  promise, 
without  showing  cause  for  his  act, 
but  more  than  one  engagement  at 
a  time  was  '  contra  bonos  mores  J 
and  caused  the  offender  to  be 
branded  with  infamy  (infamia 
notatur  qui  bina  Sponsalia  binasve 
nuplias  in  eodem  tempore  constitu- 
tas  habuerit,\).  3,  2,  i).  Pledges 
and  gifts  given  in  consideration 
of  betrothal  (arra  sponsalicia) 
were  forfeited  by  the  one  renounc- 
ing the  engagement,  except  in  cer- 
tain cases  (osculo  interveniente, 
etc.). 

4.  stipulari  et  spondere :  be- 
trothal was  originally  accomplished 
by  the  form  of  promise  known  as 
stipulatio^  in  which  the  words 
spondesne?  spondeo  were  em- 
ployed, hence  the  words  sponsus 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Modest.  D.  In  sponsalibus  contrahendis  aetas  contrahen- 
23.  i.  14  tium  definita  non  est  ut  in  matrimoniis.  Qua- 
propter  et  a  primordio  aetatis  sponsalia  effici  possunt,  si 
modo  id  fieri  ab  utraque  persona  intellegatur,  id  est,  si  non 

5  sint  minores  quam  septem  annis. 

Paul.  D.  In  sponsalibus  nihil  interest,  utrum   testatio 

23.  i.  7  interponatur  an  aliquis  sine  scriptura  spondeat. 
In  sponsalibus  etiam  consensus  eorum  exigendus  est,  quo- 
rum in  nuptiis  desideratur.  Intellegi  tamen  semper  filiae 

10  patrem  consentire,  nisi  evidenter  dissentiat,  lulianus  scribit. 
Julian.  D.  Sponsalia  sicut  nuptiae  consensu  contrahen- 

23,  i,  ii         tium  fiunt ;  et  ideo  sicut  nuptiis,  ita  sponsalibus 
filiam  familias  consentire  oportet. 
uip.  D.  Sed  quae  patris  voluntati  non  repugnat,  con- 

1523,1,12  sentire  intellegitur.  Tune  autem  solum  dissenti- 
endi  a  patre  licentia  filiae  conceditur,  si  indignum  moribus 
vel  turpem  sponsum  ei  pater  eligat. 

and  sponsa  (cf.  Fr.  epoux,  epouse)  spectively    are    impuberes.     Im- 

for  the  betrothed.  puberes  are  further  divided  into 

4.   si  non   sint   minores   quam  infantes  (\.e.quifarinonpossunt}, 

septem  annis :   in  Roman  law  the  children  under  seven   years,  and 

capacity  to  act  with  full  legal  ef-  infantia  maiores,  children  between 

feet  depends  upon  sex  and  age.  the  completed  seventh  and  four- 

The  Romans  recognized  two  ages  teenth  years.     The  former  are  in- 

of  capacity,  while  we  are  accus-  capable  of  performing  juristic  acts  ; 

tomed   to  one   only.     In   Roman  the  latter  act  for  themselves,  but, 

terms,  infancy   and   minority   are  except  for  their  own  benefit  (i.e. 

not   synonymous.     Full    capacity  by  acquiring  rights),  only  with  the 

begins  with  pubertas,  which  was  assistance   of  a   guardian  (aucto- 

originally  determined  by  physical  ritate  tutoris).  Maior  aetas  begins 

development  and  afterward  fixed  with    the    completed   twenty-fifth 

by  the  jurists  at  fourteen  for  males  year  (pieberes  maiores  vel  minores 

and   twelve   for  females.      Those  XXV  annis}.      This    distinction 

persons     under     the     completed  gained  legal  recognition  as   early 

twelfth  and   fourteenth   years  re-  as  the  time  of  Plautus  (cf.  Pseud. 

120 


SELECTED   TEXTS  FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Paul.  D. 
23,  I>  X3 

Ulp.  D. 
23,  i,  18 


Filio  familias  dissentiente  sponsalia  nomine 
ems  fieri  non  possunt. 

In  sponsalibus  constituendis  parvi  refert,  per 
se  (et  coram  an  per  interntmtium  vel  per  epistu- 
5  lam)  an  per  alium  hoc  factum  est:  et  fere  plerumque  con- 
diciones  interpositis  personis  expediuntur. 
Gai.  D.  In  sponsalibus  discutiendis  placuit  renuntia- 

24, 2, 2, 2        tionem   intervenire   oportere  ;  in   qua   re   haec 
verba  probata  sunt:  'condicione  tua  non  utor.' 
10  uip.  D.  In  potestate  manente  filia  pater  sponso  nun- 

23,  i,  10         tmm  remittere  potest  et  sponsalia  dissolvere. 


303)  by  a  lex  Plaetoria  against 
defrauding  minors.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  republic  the  principle 
was  developed  by  the  praetor,  who 
allowed  a  remedy  to  the  minor 
defrauded  on  account  of  his  inex- 
perience (restitutio  in  integrum 
propter  minor  em  aetateni) ,  and  by 
imperial  legislation,  which  allowed 
the  minor  the  protection  of  a 
curator  (cf.  note  on  infra,  p.  117). 

9.  condicione  tua  non  utor :  '  I  do 
not  avail  myself  of  your  offer.'  As 
the  promise  of  marriage  involves  no 
legal  obligation  and  no  penalties, 
it  may  be  renounced  at  will.  These 
are  the  usual  words  employed  in 
the  breaking  off  of  an  engagement 
(remintiatio),  not  in  the  dissolu- 
tion of  marriage,  as  given  in  Har- 
per's Lat.  Diet.  s.  v.  Candida, 
B.  i. 

Dissolution  of  Marriage :  mar- 
riage may  be  dissolved  by  necessity 
and  voluntarily.  By  necessity,  as 
when  marriage  comes  to  an  end  by 


some  circumstance  independent 
of  the  will :  by  death ;  by  cap- 
tivity, as  when  either  spouse  be- 
comes a  prisoner  of  war ;  by  loss 
of  freedom  in  other  ways ;  by  im- 
pediments to  marriage  which  arise 
ex  post  facto,  as  when  a  father 
adopts  his  daughter's  husband 
(incest us  superveniens}  or  when 
the  husband  of  a  libertina  becomes 
a  senator.  Voluntary  dissolution 
of  marriage  arises  by  separation 
(di-vortiitm) ,  i.e.  by  a  discontinu- 
ance of  the  marriage  relation  with 
the  intention  of  permanently  dis- 
solving the  marriage.  This  may 
arise  by  agreement  of  husband 
and  wife  or  by  the  voluntary  re- 
nunciation of  the  marriage  by 
either  spouse  (divortium  followed 
by  repudium).  As  marriage  arises 
by  consent,  it  may  be  dissolved 
voluntarily,  since  the  prohibitions 
against  divorce  are  very  few  in 
Roman  law  (cf.  Cell.  10,  15,23; 
D.  24,  2,  11).  In  the  older  law, 


121 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Paul.  D. 
24,  2,  i 

Tryph.  D. 
49-  IS.  I2-  4 

5  Pompon.  D. 


DISSOLUTION  OF  MARRIAGE 

Dirimitur  matrimonium  divortio,  morte,  capti- 
vitate  vel  alia  contingente  servitute  utrius  eorum. 
Sed  captivi  uxor,  tametsi  maxime  velit  et  in 
domo  ems  sit,  non  tamen  in  matrimonio  est. 

Non  ut  pater  filium,  ita  uxorem  maritus  iure 
49. 15.  J4. *  postliminii  recipit,  sed  consensu  redintegratur 
matrimonium. 

Julian.  D.  Vxores  eorum,  qui  in  hostium  potestate  per- 

24,2,6  venerunt,  possunt  videri  nuptarum  locum  reti- 

10  nere  eo  solo,  quod  alii  temere  nubere  non  possunt.  Et 
generaliter  definiendum  est,  donee  certum  est  maritum 
vivere  in  captivitate  constitutum,  nullam  habere  licentiam 


ceremonies  in  effecting  divorce 
were  required  only  in  the  case  of 
marriage  by  confarreatio,  which 
required  a  corresponding  diffar- 
reatio.  Marriage  by  coemptio  and 
probably  by  usus  were  dissolved 
by  the  usual  remancipatio  ('  fic- 
titious sale  '),  followed  by  manu- 
missio  on  the  part  of  the  fictitious 
purchaser.  Divorce  during  the 
republic  was  regulated  more  by 
custom  and  the  corrective  power 
of  the  censor  than  by  law  (cf. 
case  of  Sp.  Carvilius  Ruga,  234 
B.C.).  After  Constantine,  sepa- 
ration for  insufficient  cause  or 
for  guilt  was  punished  by  heavy 
fines  (C.  5,  17,  8).  By  the  law 
of  Justinian,  divorce  was  accom- 
plished by  informal  methods, 
without  judicial  or  clerical  inter- 
vention. 


1 .  morte  captivitate  vel  alia  con- 
tingente servitute :  marriage  with 
or  without  mamis  ceases  at  death, 
by  captivity,  and  by  any  other  loss 
of  freedom  of  either  spouse.     For 
loss  of  freedom  in  other  ways  see 
note  on  iure  civili,  p.  80.    Byfosl- 
liminium  a  captive  citizen  recov- 
ered all  of  his  legal  relations  where 
he  laid  them  down  at  the  time  of 
his  capture,  with  the  exception  of 
marriage.     The  marriage  contract 
must   be   renewed   by   agreement 
of  the   parties.      It   was   enacted 
by  law  (perhaps  the  lex  lulia  et 
Papia  Poppaea)  that  captivity  dis- 
solved a  marriage  only  when  the 
life  of  the  captive  was  despaired 
of  and  a  period  of  five  years  had 
elapsed  since  capture. 

2.  utrius  :  for  alterutrius,  utri- 
usque. 


122 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

uxores  eorum  migrare  ad  aliud  matrimonium,  nisi  mallent 
ipsae  mulieres  causam  repudii  praestare.  Sin  autem  in 
incerto  est,  an  vivus  apud  hostes  teneatur  vel  morte  prae- 
ventus,  tune,  si  quinquennium  a  tempore  captivitatis  ex- 

5  cesserit,  licentiam  habet  mulier  ad  alias  migrare  nuptias, 
ita  tamen,  ut  bona  gratia  dissolutum  videatur  pristinum 
matrimonium  et  unusquisque  suum  ius  habeat  imminutum  ; 
eodem  iure  et  in  marito  in  civitate  degente  et  uxore  captiva 
observando. 

10  just.  c.  Neque  ab  initio  matrimonium  contrahere 

5. 4.  *4  neque  dissociatum  reconciliare  quisquam  cogi 

potest.  Vnde  intellegis  liberam  facultatem  contrahendi 
atque  distrahendi  matrimonii  transferri  ad  necessitatem 
non  oportere. 

'5  Gal.  D.  Divortium  autem  vel  a  diversitate  mentium 

24, 2, 2  dictum  est  vel  quia  in  diversas  partes  eunt,  qui 

distrahunt  matrimonium.  In  repudiis  autem,  id  est  renun- 
tiatione,  comprobata  sunt  haec  verba  :  '  tuas  res  tibi  habeto,' 
item  haec  :  'tuas  res  tibi  agito.' 

6.  bona  gratia  dissolutum:  a  (magna  et  iusta  causa),  and  later 

divortium  bona  gratia  was  a  sepa-  emperors  advanced  the  view  of  the 

ration  free  from  all  disadvantages  text.  A  wife  in  manu  could  not, 

and  penalties  (suum  ius  habeaf),  of  course,  divorce  herself  (invitam 

when  it  occurred  by  agreement  or  autem  ad  maritum  redire  nulla 

for  reasons  attaching  no  blame  to  iuris  praecepit  constitute,  C.  5, 

either  party.  17,  5). 

12.  liberam  facultatem  contra-  15.  Divortium  ...  In  repudiis  : 

hendi  atque  distrahendi :  in  the  there  is  no  contrast  here  between 

earlier  law  the  paterfamilias  could  divortimn  and  repudium  (as  given 

dissolve  the  marriage  of  his  filia-  s.  v.  divortium  in  Harper's  Lat. 

familias  if  she  were  not  in  manu  Diet.).  Divortium  is  the  general 

mariti.  Usually  the  consent  of  term  for  the  separation  from  a 

a  paterfamilias  was  unnecessary.  marriage.  Repudium  is  the  decla- 

M.  Aurelius  forbade  his  interfer-  ration  or  formal  notice  (renunti- 

ence  except  for  serious  reasons  atio)  given  by  one  party  to  the 

123 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Paul.  D. 
24.2,3 


Divortium  non    est  nisi  verum,   quod  animo 
perpetuam  constituendi  dissensionem  fit.  Itaque 
quidquid  in  calore  iracundiae  vel  fit  vel  dicitur,  non  prius 
ratum  est,  quam  si  perseverantia  apparuit  iudicium  animi 
5  fuisse  :  ideoque  per  calorem  misso  repudio,  si  brevi  reversa 
uxor  est  nee  divortisse  videtur. 

Paul  D  Nullum  divortium  ratum  est  nisi  septem  civi- 

24.2,9          bus  Romanis  puberibus  adhibitis  praeter  liber- 
turn  eius  qui  divortium  f  aciet. 


other,  of  which  the  usual  words 
of  style  are  '  tuas  res  habeto?  etc. 
The  prevailing  opinion  is  that 
divortium  is  a  separation  by 
agreement ;  repudium,  a  separa- 
tion by  compulsion  or  withdrawal 
of  consent  on  one  side  only 
(repudiation).  This  view  seems 
untenable  from  the  sources.  It 
appears  as  more  likely  that  di- 
vortium is  a  term  denoting  a 
separation  of  any  kind,  whether 
by  agreement  or  by  the  application 
of  one  party  only,  while  repudium 
denotes  the  formal  declaration  of 
will  and  intention  of  either  party 
seeking  a  dissolution  of  marriage 
(cf.  Sohm,  Institutionen,  8th  ed., 
1899,  p.  453).  The  mere  agree- 
ment to  separate  did  not  dis- 
solve the  marriage,  but  agree- 
ment followed  by  the  declara- 
tion (repudium  mittere,  dare) 
sent  or  given  by  one  of  the 
parties. 

i.   Divortium  non  est  nisi  ve- 
rum :    '  a    divorce    is    ineffectual 


unless  there  be  a  serious  inten- 
tion of  making  the  separation 
permanent.' 

7.  Nullum  divortium  nisi  septem 
civibus  Romanis :  the  lex  Inlia  de 
adiilteriis  (18  B.C.)  introduced  this 
formality  under  penalty,  in  order 
to  establish  clear  proof  of  the  in- 
tention of  the  parties.     This  con- 
tinued to  be  the  law  under  the 
empire,    although   Diocletian    re- 
quired  the   declaration  to  be   in 
writing  (repudii  libellus) . 

8.  praeter  libertum  :  why  a  liber- 
tus  of  the  one  applying  for  a  sep- 
aration   should    be    present   as  a 
witness  is  not  known.    It  has  been 
suggested,   in    the   absence   of  a 
better  explanation,  that  it  was  a 
prerogative  of  the  higher  classes 
in  divorce  proceedings,  since  they 
alone  possessed  freedmen  (Leon- 
hard).     It  is  furthermore  possible 
that   the   freedman  is  a  remnant 
and  reminiscence  of  the  old  family 
council  of  the  republic  (indicium 
domesticum) . 


124 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Gai.  i,  109 


MANVS 

Sed  in  potestate  quidem  et  masculi  et  feminae 
esse  solent ;  in  manum  autem  feminae  tantum 
conveniunt.  Olim  itaque  tribus  modis  in  manum  convenie- 
bant,  usu,  farreo,  coemptione. 

Farreo  in  manum  conveniunt  per  quoddam  genus  sacri- 
ficii,  quod  lovi  Farreo  fit  in  quo  farreus  panis  adhibetur, 
unde  etiam  confarreatio  dicitur :  complura  praeterea  huius 


Manus  :  manus  is  the  technical 
term  for  the  power  of  the  husband 
over  his  wife.  The  wife  in  manu 
was  called  materfamilias  (not  to 
be  confused  with  a  woman  sui 
mris,  cf.  D.  1 , 6, 4,  and  note  on  Defi- 
nition, p.  104)  ;  the  wife  sine  manu 
was  called  simply  uxor  (Cic.  Top. 
3,  14).  Originally  every  iustum 
matrimonium  carried  with  it 
manus;  later  manus  became  in- 
dependent of  marriage  and  arose 
only  through  an  especial  act  as  an 
accessory  of  marriage.  In  this  way 
manus  was  fictitiously  employed 
in  other  relations  than  those  of 
marriage,  so  that  the  woman 
passed  temporarily  into  the  manus 
of  even  a  third  party.  Manus 
matrimonii  causa  came  into  dis- 
favor toward  the  time  of  Cicero 
(Cic.  pro  Mur.  12)  and  occurred 
but  seldom  during  the  earlier 
empire  ;  manus  as  a  fiction,  how- 
ever, continued  longer  and  was 
an  institution  of  the  classical  law. 
The  legal  position  of  the  wife  in 
manu  was  as  follows :  (a)  she 


passed  entirely  out  of  her  family 
into  the  family  of  her  husband,  to 
whom  she  stood  in  the  position 
of  a  daughter  (quasi filiafamilias, 
filiae  loco),  and  to  her  own  chil- 
dren, who  were  in  patria  poteslas, 
she  was  in  the  position  of  sister 
(sororis  loco)  ;  (b)  her  entire  prop- 
erty became  her  husband's  and  all 
that  she  acquired  after  marriage 
(per  eas  personas,  quas  in  manu 
mancipicrve  habemus,  proprietas 
quidem  adquiritur  nobis  ex  omni- 
bus causis,  sicut per  eos  qui  in  potes- 
tate nostra  stint,  Gai.  2,  90)  ;  for 
her  previously  contracted  debts  her 
husband  was  responsible  up  to  the 
extent  of  her  property  (missto  in 
bona  of  her  creditors) . 

3.  Olim  tribus  modis  in  manum 
conveniebant :  manus  had  become 
practically  obsolete  in  the  time  of 
Gaius  and  had  vanished  entirely 
from  the  law  of  Justinian.  Along 
with  the  change  in  manners  and 
social  life  during  the  last  century 
and  a  half  of  the  republic,  women 
preferred  the  more  independent 


125 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


iuris  ordinandi  gratia  cum  certis  et  sollemnibus  verbis, 
praesentibus  decem  testibus,  aguntur  et  fiunt.  Quod  ius 
etiam  nostris  temporibus  in  usu  est ;  nam  flamines  maiores, 
id  est  Diales,  Martiales,  Quirinales,  item  reges  sacrorum 
5  nisi  ex  farreatis  nati  sunt,  non  leguntur  ;  ac  ne  ipsi  quidem 
sine  confarreatione  sacerdotium  habere  possunt. 

Coemptione  vero  in  manum  conveniunt  per  mancipa- 
tionem,    id    est    per  quandam  imaginariam  venditionem ; 


position  afforded  by  marriage  with- 
out manus  along  with  the  freedom 
of  divorce,  independent  property, 
etc.,  which  it  granted. 

1.  sollemnibus  verbis:  the  power 
of  the  husband  over  his  wife  was 
derived  from  a  union  of  their  re- 
spective   sacred  rites,  symbolized 
by  a  ceremony  in  which  the  woman 
was  introduced  into  the  religious 
worship   of    her    husband.      The 
words    of    the   ceremony     (certa 
•verba,  sollemnia)  were  '  Vbi  tu  es 
Gaius,  ibi  ego  sum  GaiaJ  spoken 
by  the  woman. 

2.  Quod  ius  nostris  temporibus 
in   usu   est:     confarreatio    made 
the  issue  of  the  marriage  eligible 
for    certain    high    priestly  offices 
(Jlamen    maior,    rex    sacrorutn, 
•virgo  vestalis)  and,  as  it  was  the 
most  ceremonious  and  aristocratic 
form  of  marriage,  it  was  the  pre- 
rogative  of   the   patricians   only. 
Augustus  renewed  the  priesthood 
of  Jove  (10  B.C.),  and  by  a  law 
of  Tiberius,  marriage  by  confarre- 
atio with  zflamen  Dialis  produced 
manus  with  regard  to  sacred  rites 
only.     In  other  respects  the  wife 


retained  the  rights  of  an  nxor  sine 
matin. 

7.  Coemptione  in  manum  con- 
veniunt :  marriage  by  the  secular  co- 
emptioviz.?,  accessible  to  all  citizens, 
plebeians  as  well  as  patricians. 
The  primitive  bride  purchase  took 
in  Roman  law  the  form  of  manci- 
patio,  originally  a  formal  proceed- 
ing per  aes  et  libram,  but  eventually 
a  fictitious  sale  in  which  the 
daughter  was  purchased  from  her 
paterfamilias  and  later  a  transac- 
tion in  which  the  bride  sold  her- 
self (aiictoritatetutoris}  iti  manum 
mar  it  i.  Two  forms  of  coemptio 
occur :  coemptio  matrimonii  causa 
and  coemptio  fiduciae  causa.  The 
latter  was  a  fiction  whereby  women 
might  avoid  certain  legal  restric- 
tions and  disabilities  (e.g.  coemptio 
tutelae  evitandae  causa,  testament  i 
faciendi  causa,  etc.).  In  these  co- 
emptiones  the  wife  trusted  (fidu- 
cia)  that  the  sham  husband  would 
not  take  the  marriage  seriously, 
but  would  immediately  set  her  free 
from  manus  by  remancipation.  For 
greater  security  old  men  were  se- 
lected for  these  'dummy1  husbands, 


126 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

nam  adhibitis  non  minus  quam  quinque  testibus  civibus 
Romanis  puberibus,  item  libripende,  emit  is  mulierem,  cuius 
in  manum  convenit 

Vsu  in  manum  conveniebat,  quae  anno  continuo  nupta 

5  perseverabat ;    quia  enim  veluti   annua   possessione   usu- 

capiebatur,  in  familiam  viri  transibat  filiaeque  locum  ob- 

tinebat.     Itaque  lege  duodecim  tabularum  cautum  est,  ut 

si  qua  nollet  eo  modo  in  manum  mariti  convenire,  ea  quo- 

tannis  trinoctio  abesset  atque  eo  modo  usum  cuiusque  anni 

10  interrumperet.     Sed  hoc  totum  ius  partim  legibus  sublatum 

est,  partim  ipsa  desuetudine  oblitteratum  est. 

PATRIA  POTESTAS 
Quaedam    personae  sui  iuris  sunt,  quaedam 

Gai.  i,  48  .      . 

aheno  mn  sunt  subiectae.     Rursus  earum  per- 
sonarum,  quae  alieno  iuri  subiectae  sunt,  aliae  in  potestate, 

at  the  most,  merely  short-lived  pur-  other  rights  of  a  iustum  matrimo- 
chasers  of  the  marital  power  (senes  nium.  According  to  the  Twelve 
coemptionales,  cf.  Cic.  pro  Mur.  Tables,  manus  acquired  by  dwell- 
12,  27).  ing  together  matrimonii  causa  for 
4.  Vsu  in  manum  conveniebat :  one  year  might  be  avoided  by  the 
just  as  manus  could  be  acquired  absence  (iisurpatid)  of  the  wife 
by  bride  purchase,  so  could  it  be  from  the  marital  roof  for  three 
acquired,  like  power  over  other  consecutive  nights  (quotannis  tri- 
pieces  of  property,  by  prescriptive  noctio).  By  this  symbolical  inter- 
title.  By  usucapio  under  the  old  ruption  of  the  continuity  of  the 
ius  civile,  immovable  property  was  marital  power  it  is  evident  that  as 
acquired  in  two  years ;  everything  early  as  the  Twelve  Tables  there 
else  in  one  year.  The  daughter  could  be  a  marriage  without  ma- 
of  a  stranger  (peregrimes),  there-  nus  (inre  civili),  and  eventually 
fore,  over  whom  manus  could  not  usus  no  longer  produced  manus, 
be  acquired  by  confarreatio  or  co-  and  the  institution  became  obsolete 
emptio  might  pass  into  the  power  of  (ius  desuetudine  oblitteratum  est) . 
her  husband  by  usus.  From  ma-  Patria  Potestas  :  patria  potestas 
nus  derived  in  this  way  arose  all  the  is  the  relation  of  the  paterfamilias 

127 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN   LAW 


aliae  in  manu,  aliae  in  mancipio  sunt.  Videamus  nunc 
de  his,  quae  alieno  iuri  subiectae  sint ;  nam  si  cognoveri- 
mus,  quae  istae  personae  sint,  simul  intellegemus,  quae 
sui  iuris  sint.  Ac  prius  dispiciamus  de  iis  qui  in  aliena 
5  potestate  sunt. 


with  his  filiifamilias  (and  filiae- 
familias),  whether  they  are  sub- 
jected to  his  power  by  birth  from 
a  lawful  marriage  (liber  i.  filii  legi- 
timi),  or  by  the  fiction  of  legitima- 
tion and  adoption.  The  paternal 
authority  of  a  Roman  citizen  over 
his  children  is  a  peculiar  character- 
istic of  the  law  of  status.  Patria 
potestas  is  analogous  to  dominica 
potestas  in  its  severity  and  scope, 
but  the  filiifamilias  differ  from 
those  subjected  to  dominica  potes- 
tas in  that  they  are  free  and  citi- 
zens, possessing  the  private  rights 
of  commercium  and  conubium. 
They  are  furthermore  capable  of 
becoming  independent  persons 
with  full  legal  capacity  and  having 
the  ius  potestatis  themselves  as 
soon  as  the  patria  potestas  over 
them  ceases  (sui iuris).  All  rights 
accrue  to  \\itpaterfamilias,  so  that 
the  filiusfamilias  has  no  potestas 
over  his  own  children  while  he  is 
under  the  power  of  his  own  father. 
In  other  words,  the  rights  growing 
out  of  the  ius  conubii  and  com- 
mercii  are  centered  in  the  pater- 
familias. As  regards  the  public 
rights  of  a.filiusfamilias,  see  note 
on  Films,  p.  132.  With  regard  to 
the  person  of  the  filiusfamilias, 
the  paterfamilias  possesses  the 


following  rights :  originally  the 
unlimited  power  of  life  and  death 
(vitae  necisque  potestas,  especially 
with  the  approval  of  a  domestic  tri- 
bunal) ;  the  right  of  sale  (ius  ven- 
dendi},  either  into  slavery  (trans 
Tiberini)  or  to  a  Roman  citizen 
(mancipatio^,  afterward  limited  to 
fictitious  sale,  and  sale  by  reason  of 
father's  poverty  (propter  nimiain 
paupertatem)  ;  the  right  of  sur- 
render to  the  injured  party  for  de- 
licts, in  lieu  of  pecuniary  damages 
(ex  maleficiis,  exnoxali  causa  man- 
cipio datur).  Cf.  note  on  indi- 
cium, p.  240. 

i.  aliae  in  mancipio  :  the  old  law 
recognized  the  rights  of  parents  to 
sell  their  children  into  bondage. 
The  relationship  created  by  such 
a  sale  was  one  of  master  and  bond- 
man. The  bondman  was  in  an  in- 
termediate status  between  freedom 
and  slavery,  occupying  the  position 
of  a  slave  as  regards  his  master, 
but  in  other  relations  he  was  re- 
garded as  liber  and  civis.  The 
phrase  in  mancipio  esse  means 
to  be  in  a  position  analogous  to 
that  of  slave.  The  right  of  par- 
ents to  sell  their  children  was  later 
restricted,  and  eventually  such  sales 
were  punishable  as  disgraceful  and 
unlawful  acts.  Fictitious  sales 


128 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

In  potestate  nostra  sunt  liberi  nostri,  quos  iustis  nuptiis 
procreavimus.  Quod  ius  proprium  civium  Romanorum 
est;  fere  enim  nulli  alii  sunt  homines,  qui  talem  in  filios 
suos  habent  potestatem,  qualem  nos  habemus.  Idque 
5  divus  Hadrianus  edicto,  quod  proposuit  de  his,  qui  sibi 
liberisque  suis  ab  eo  civitatem  Romanam  petebant,  signi- 
ficavit.  Nee  me  praeterit  Galatarum  gentem  credere  in 
potestate  parentum  liberos  esse. 
uip.  D.  Nam  civium  Romanorum  quidam  sunt  patres 

10  *•  6>  4  f  amiliarum,  alii  filii  f  amiliarum,  quaedam  matres 

familiarum,  quaedam  filiae  familiarum.  Patres  familiarum 
sunt,  qui  sunt  suae  potestatis  sive  puberes  sive  impuberes ; 
simili  modo  matres  familiarum ;  filii  familiarum  et  filiae 
quae  sunt  in  aliena  potestate.  Nam  qui  ex  me  et  uxore 

15  mea  nascitur,  in  mea  potestate  est;  item  qui  ex  filio  meo 
et  uxore  eius  nascitur,  id  est  nepos  meus  et  neptis,  aeque 
in  mea  sunt  potestate,  et  pronepos  et  proneptis  et  deinceps 
ceteri. 

Morte  patris  filius  et  filia  sui  iuris  fiunt ;  morte 

Ulp.  10,  2 

20  autem  avi  nepotes  ita  demum  sui  mns  fiunt,  si 

post  mortem  avi  in  potestate  patris  futuri  non  sunt,  velut 

continued  to  be  used  in  adoptions  sequens  matrimoniiiin,  per  rescrip- 

and  emancipations.  turn  principis). 

i.    In    potestate    nostra    sunt          7.   Galatarum  gentem:  the  Ga- 

liberi :  the  natural  basis  of  patria  latians  were  of  Gallic  origin,  and 

Potestas  is  birth   (liberi  ex  iusto  Caesar  (B,  G.  6,   19)   testifies  to 

matriinonio) .     Potestas   could   be  an    institution    like    the    Roman 

acquired  over  liberi  naturales  (non  patria  potestas  among  the  Gauls. 

legitimi)    by    legitimation,    which  St.  Paul  refers  also  to  this  pecu- 

might  be  effected,  under  the  Chris-  liarity  of  the  Galatians  (Gal.  4,  i). 
tian  emperors,  by  the  subsequent  19.  Morte  patris  filius  et  filia  sui 

marriage    of   parents    eligible   to  iuris  fiunt:  patria  potestas  might 

marriage,  or  by  a  rescript  of  the  cease    for    various    reasons,    but 

emperor,  etc.  (legitimatio  per  sub-  neither  marriage  nor  the  attain- 

ROMAN   LAW  —  9  129 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 

si  moriente  avo  pater  eorum  aut  iam  decessit  aut  de  potes- 

tate  dimissus  est ;  nam  si  mortis  avi  tempore  pater  eorum 

in  potestate  eius  sit,  mortuo  avo  in  patris  sui  potestate  fiunt. 

Si   patri   vel   filio  aqua  et  igni  interdictum   sit,   patria 

5  potestas  tollitur,  quia  peregrinus  fit  is,  cui  aqua   et  igni 

interdictum  est ;  neque  autem  peregrinus  civem  Romanum 

neque    civis    Romanus    peregrinum    in   potestate    habere 

potest. 

Si  pater  ab  hostibus  captus  sit,  quamvis  servus  hostium 

10  fiat,  tamen  cum  reversus  fuerit,  omnia  pristina  iura  recipit 

iure  postliminii.      Sed  quamdiu   apud    hostes   est,   patria 

potestas  in  filio  eius  interim   pendebit,   et  cum  reversus 

fuerit  ab  hostibus,  in  potestate  filium  habebit;  si  vero  ibi 

decesserit,   sui  iuris  filius  erit.      Filius   quoque  si  captus 

15  fuerit  ab  hostibus,  similiter  propter  ius  postliminii  patria 

potestas  interim  pendebit. 

In  potestate  parentum  esse  desinunt  et  hi  qui  flamines 
Diales  inaugurantur  et  quae  virgines  Vestae  capiuntur. 

Poenae    servus    effectus    filios    in    potestate 

Inst.  i,  12,  3  ... 

20  habere  desinit     Servi  autem  poenae  efficiuntur, 

qui  in  metellum  damnantur  et  qui  bestiis  subiciuntur. 

ment  of  majority  relieved  a  son  or  virgo  vestalis  in  the  older  law, 

from  paternal  authority  at  Rome.  or  the  office  of  bishop  or  rank  of 

Patria  potestas  terminated  of  ne-  patricins  in  the  law  of  Justinian, 

cessity :  by  death  of  paterfamilias,  Patria  potestas  terminated  of  free 

though   grandchildren    then  pass  will:    by   emancipation    (also   by 

into  the  power  of  their  father  if  he  datio  in   adoptionem   and   by  in 

is   alive    (otherwise  they  become  manum  con-ventio)  occurring,  ac- 

sui  iuris)  ;  by  loss  of  freedom  or  cording  to  the  Twelve  Tables  and 

citizenship  of  either  paterfamilias  the  classical  law,  by  mancipatio  fol- 

or  filiusfamilias  (subject    to   ins  lowed  by  manumissio ;  by  rescript 

postliminii);  by  assumption  of  cer-  in  the  imperial  law  ;  and  by  decla- 

tain  offices  on  the  part  of  those  sub-  ration  before  a  court  in  the  law  of 

jected  to  power,  as  flamen  Dialis  Justinian. 

130 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Filius  familias  si  militaverit,  vel  si  senator  vel  consul 

fuerit  factus,  manet  in  patris  potestate.     Militia  enim  vel 

consularia  dignitas  patris  potestate  filium  non  liberat.    Sed 

ex  constitutione  nostra  summa  patriciatus  dignitas  ilico  ab 

5  imperialibus  codicillis  praestitis  a  patria  potestate  liberat. 

Praeterea    emancipatione    desinunt   liberi    in 

Gai.  i,  132  /-     i          • 

potestate  parentum  esse.  Sed  films  quidem 
tribus  mancipationibus,  ceteri  vero  liberi  sive  masculini 
sexus  sive  feminini  una  mancipatione  exeunt  de  parentum 

10  potestate;  lex  enim  XII  tabularum  tantum  in  persona  filii 
de  tribus  mancipationibus  loquitur  his  verbis  '  si  pater 
filium  ter  venum  duit,  a  patre  filius  liber  esto.'  Eaque  res 
ita  agitur :  mancipat  pater  filium  alicui ;  is  eum  vindicta 
manumittit;  eo  facto  revertitur  in  potestatem  patris;  is 

15  eum  iterum  mancipat  vel  eidem  vel  alii  (sed  in  usu  est 
eidem  mancipari)  isque  eum  postea  similiter  vindicta  manu- 
mittit ;  eo  facto  rursus  in  potestatem  patris  revertitur ; 
tertio  pater  eum  mancipat  vel  eidem  vel  alii  (sed  hoc  in 
usu  est,  ut  eidem  mancipetur),  eaque  mancipatione  desinit 

20  in  potestate  patris  esse,  etiamsi  nondum  manumissus  sit 
sed  adhuc  in  causa  mancipii. 

Sed   ea   emancipatio   antea   quidem   vel   per 

Inst.  i,  12,  6 

antiquam  legis  observationem  procedebat,  quae 
per  imaginarias  venditiones  et  intercedentes  manumissiones 
25  celebrabatur,  vel  ex  imperiali  rescripto.  Nostra  autem 
providentia  et  hoc  in  melius  per  constitutionem  refor- 
mavit,  ut  fictione  pristina  explosa  recta  via  apud  compe- 
tentes  iudices  vel  magistratus  parentes  intrent  et  filios 


4.  summa  patriciatus  dignitas  :  ity  in  imitation  of  the  old  patriciate 
the  term  patricius  was  changed  arising  from  birth.  It  was  hence- 
by  Constantino  to  a  title  of  nobil-  forth  a  title  conferred  at  the  pleas- 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

suos  vel  filias  vel  nepotes  vel  neptes  ac  deinceps  sua  manu 

dimitterent. 

Gai.  D.  Liberum  arbitrium  est  ei,  qui  filium  et  ex  eo 

i.  7. 28  nepotem    in    potestate    habebit,    filium    quidem 

5  potestate  demittere,  nepotem  vero  in  potestate  retinere; 
vel  ex  diverso  filium  quidem  in  potestate  retinere,  nepotem 
vero  manumittere  ;  vel  omnes  sui  iuris  efficere. 
Marcian.  D.        Non  potest  filius,  qui  est  in  potestate  patris, 
i.  7. 31  ullo  modo  compellere  eum,  ne  sit  in  potestate, 

10  sive  naturalis  sive  adoptivus. 

Pompon.  D.        Filius  familias  in  publicis  causis  loco  patris 
I-6-9  familias  habetur,  veluti  ut  magistratum   gerat, 

ut  tutor  detur. 

ADOPTION 

Non  tantum  naturales  liberi  in  potestate  pa- 

Ulp.  8, 1 

15  rentum  sunt,  sed  etiam  adoptivi. 

Modest.  D.         Filios  familias  non  solum  natura,  verum  et 
T'7.  *  adoptiones   faciunt.       Quod    adoptionis   nomen 

est   quidem    generale,    in    duas   autem    species    dividitflr, 

ure  of  the  emperor  on  the  highest  judge  in  a  suit  to  which  his  father 

and  most  esteemed  personages  of  was  a  party  or  even  preside  over 

the  imperial  court.  his  own  adoption  or  emancipation. 

n.   Filius  familias  in  publicis  He    might,     though    still    under 

causis :    patria  potestas   did   not  power  himself,  be  appointed  to  fill 

apply  in  the  gphere  of  public  law.  the  public  office  of  guardian  over 

The  filiusfainilias,  regardless  of  another   (quod  ad  ius  publicuin 

paternal    authority,   had   the  two  attinet,  non  sequitur  ius  potestatis, 

public  rights,  ius  honorum  and  ins  D.  36,  I,  14). 

suffragii.     He  could  exercise  all  Adoption:  adopted  persons  may 

political   functions   and   hold   the  be  subjected  to  patria  potestas  as 

highest    political   offices    without  well    as   those   belonging   to   the 

release  from  patria  potestas  and  family  by  birth.     The  transaction 

with   no  prejudice   to  his   public  by  which  one  person  is  rendered 

authority.     He  might  officiate  as  subordinate  to  another,  taking  the 

132 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 


Inst.  i,  ii,  8 


quarum  altera  adoptio  similiter  dicitur,  altera  adrogatio. 
Adoptantur  filii  familias,  adrogantur  qui  sui  iuris  sunt. 

In  plurimis  autem  causis  adsimilatur  is,  qui 
adoptatus  vel  adrogatus  est,  ei  qui  ex  legitimo 
5  matrimonio  natus  est.     Et  ideo  si  quis  per  imperatorem 
sive  apud  praetorem  vel  apud  praesidem  provinciae  non 
extraneum  adoptaverit,  potest  eundem  alii  in  adoptionem 
dare.    Sed  et  illud  utriusque  adoptionis  commune  est,  quod 
et  hi,  qui  generare  non  possunt,   quale's    sunt   spadones, 
10  adoptare  possunt,  castrati  autem  non  possunt.     Feminae 


position  of  son,  grandson,  etc., 
is  called  adoption.  Of  adoption 
there  are  two  kinds  :  adoptio  and 
arrogatio.  Adoptio,  in  the  specific 
sense,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
transaction  by  which  a  persona 
alieni  inris  (filiusfainilias')  is 
transferred  from  the  power  of  one 
paterfamilias  to  another ;  arroga- 
tio is  the  name  of  the  transaction  by 
which  a  persona  sui  iuris  (pater- 
familias') is  subjected  to  the  power 
of  another.  In  the  old  law, 
adoption  of  a  son  required  that 
he  be  emancipated  three  times  by 
his  father  and  that  he  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  power  of  the  adoptive 
father  (vindicatio  in  patriam 
potestatetn).  See  also  note  on 
gui,  p.  105.  In  the  later  law, 
adoption  was  effected  before  the 
proper  court  in  the  presence  of  the 
parties,  and  in  the  law  of  Justinian 
it  was  complete  only  when  the  one 
adopting  was  an  ascendant  of 
the  one  adopted  (called  adoptio 
plena) . 


6.  non  extraneum :  -a^extraneus 
is  one  not  related  by  a  family  tie ; 
here  non  extraneum  means  a  de- 
scendant. Under  the  law  of  Jus- 
tinian the  adoption  of  a  stranger 
(extraneus)  did  not  confer  patria 
pot  est  as  or  any  other  rights  over 
the  one  adopted  (called  adoptio 
minus  plena),  hence  he  could  not 
be  given  in  adoption  to  still  an- 
other person.  The  one  adopted, 
however,  obtained  rights  of  in- 
heritance ab  intestate  in  the  estate 
of  his  adoptive  parent. 

9.  qui  generare  non  possunt : 
there  were  certain  requirements 
which  must  be  observed  in  cases 
of  adoption :  the  adoptive  parent 
must  be  capable  of  exercising 
patria  potestas  and  he  must  be 
eligible  to  marriage  ;  he  must  also 
be  one  generation  (eighteen  years) 
older  than  the  one  adopted ;  the 
parties  concerned  must  consent. 
As  adoption  imitates  nature,  only 
those  capable  of  marriage  (though 
not  necessarily  married)  could 


133 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

quoque  adoptare  non  possunt,  quia  nee  naturales  liberos  in 
potestate  sua  habent ;  sed  ex  indulgentia  principis  ad  sola- 
tium liberorum  amissorum  adoptare  possunt. 
Paul.  D.  Et  qui  uxores  non  habent  filios  adoptare  pos- 

5  J'7-3o  Sunt. 

Minorem  natu  non  posse  maiorem  adoptare 

placet:    adoptio  enim  naturam  imitatur  et  pro 

monstro  est,  ut  maior  sit  films  quam  pater.     Debet  itaque 

is,  qui  sibi  per  adrogationem  vel  adoptionem  filium  facit, 

10  plena  pubertate,  id  est  decem  et  octo  annis  praecedere. 
Licet  autem  et  in  locum  nepotis  vel  neptis  vel  in  locum 
pronepotis  vel  proneptis  vel  deinceps  adoptare,  quamvis 
filium  quis  non  habeat.  Et  tam  filium  alienum  quis  in  lo- 
cum nepotis  potest  adoptare,  quam  nepotem  in  locum  filii. 

*5  Paul.  D.  Cum  nepos  adoptatur  quasi  ex  filio  natus,  con- 

x'7-6  sensus  filii  exigitur,  idque  etiam  lulianus  scribit. 

adopt.     Spadones    could    marry ;  10.   plena  pubertate  praecedere : 

caslrati  could   not   marry.      The  although  the  age  of  puberty  was 

possibility    of    spadones     having  fixed  in  the  classical  law  at  fourteen, 

children   was   not   entirely   disre-  it  was   agreed  by  jurists  that  in 

garded  (nee  ei  corporate  vitium  some  cases  the  age  should  be  placed 

impedimenta  est,  D.  I,  7,  40).  later  to  include  those  of  retarded 

2.   ad  solatium  liberorum  amis-  physical    development.     The   age 

sorum  adoptare  possunt :    women  accepted  as  sufficient  for  adoption 

could  not  adopt  because  they  did  and  certain  other  acts  was  eighteen 

not  have  the  patria  potestas,  but  (plena pubert as).     An  interval  of 

the  emperor    Diocletian    enacted  eighteen   years  was  therefore   re- 

that  a  mother  might  adopt  for  the  quired  between   the   ages   of  the 

reason  stated  in  the  text  (C.  8,  adoptive  father  and  son. 

47,5).     This  was  not  a  complete  15.   consensus  filii  exigitur :  the 

adoption,  but   the  adopted  child  consent  of  a  son  was  required  for 

was  placed  in  a  position  similar  the  same  reason  in  adoption  as  that 

to  that  of  the  mother's  own  child,  of  a  father  in  marriage  (cf.  note  on 

with  reciprocal   rights  of  inherit-  consensual,  p.  in).     A  grandson 

ance  ab  intestato,  (C)  might  be  adopted  in  a  general 

134 


SELECTED   TEXTS   EROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  i,  ii,  7 


In  eo  casu  et  filius  consentire  debet,  ne  ei 
invito  suus  heres  adgnascatur.  Sed  ex  contra- 
rio  si  avus  ex  filio  nepotem  dat  in  adoptionem,  non  est 
necesse  filium  consentire. 


Gai.  i,  99 


ARROGATION 

Populi  auctoritate  adoptamus  eos,  qui  sui  iuris 
sunt ;  quae  species  adoptionis  dicitur  adrogatio, 
quia  et  is  qui  adoptat  rogatur,  id  est  interrogatur,  an  velit 
eum,  quern  adoptaturus  sit,  iustum  sibi  filium  esse ;  et  is,  qui 
adoptatur,  rogatur,  an  id  fieri  patiatur ;  et  populus  rogatur, 


way,  or  as  the  son  of  a  particular 
son  (B),  who  might  be  still  living, 
or  deceased.  If  a  grandson  (C) 
were  adopted  as  the  son  of  a  partic- 
ular son  (B)  of  the  adopting  grand- 
father (paterfamilias),  it  would 
happen,  at  the  death  of  the  grand- 
father (A),  that  the  adopted  one 
(C)  would  pass  into  the  power  of 
this  particular  son  (B)  and  become 
one  of  his  agnatic  heirs.  Hence 
without  this  provision  the  son's 
(B's)  heirs  would  be  increased 
without  his  consent.  A  grandson 
adopted  in  a  general  way  would 
become  sui  iuris  at  the  death  of 
his  adoptive  grandfather. 

Arrogation :  in  the  early  law 
arrogation  was  accomplished  by  a 
rogatio  populi  in  coniitiis  calatis 
(lex  curiata)  with  the  cooperation 
of  the  pontiffs,  who  watched  over 
the  religious  interests  involved. 
The  transaction  by  which  a  homo 
sui  iuris  became  alieni  iuris  might 


involve  not  only  the  extinction  of 
a  family,  but  also  that  of  a  gens. 
Arrogation  was,  therefore,  a  matter 
of  concern  to  the  state,  and  it  al- 
ways remained  an  institution  gov- 
erned by  public  law.  Procedure 
in  the  matter  of  arrogation  before 
the  comitia  curiata  was  similar  to 
that  of  other  formal  transactions 
before  this  body  (for  the  formula 
see  Cell.  5, 19, 9.  Cf.  also  note  on 
latam,  p.  46).  Only  those  could 
be  arrogated  who  were  qualified  to 
appear  in  the  comitia  curiata ; 
women  and  impuberes  were,  there- 
fore, excluded.  In  the  empire, 
arrogation  was  performed  by  re- 
scriptum  principis  (auctoritate 
Principis),  the  will  of  the  emperor 
supplanting  the  former  auctorilas 
populi.  Antoninus  Pius  allowed 
impuberes  to  be  arrogated  in  cer- 
tain cases,  but  only  when  provision 
had  been  previously  made  for  the 
protection  of  their  interests. 


135 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


an  id  fieri  iubeat.  Imperio  magistrates  adoptamus  eos, 
qui  in  potestate  parentum  sunt,  sive  primum  gradum  libe- 
rorum  obtineant,  qualis  est  films  et  filia,  sive  inferiorem, 
qualis  est  nepos  neptis,  pronepos  proneptis.  Et  quidem 

5  ilia  adoptio,  quae  per  populum  fit,  nusquam  nisi  Romae  fit ; 
at  haec  etiam  in  provinciis  apud  praesides  earum  fieri 
solet. 

uip.  D.  Si  pater  familias  adoptatus  sit,  omnia  quae 

1,7.15          eius  fuerunt  et  adquiri  possunt  tacito  iure  ad 

10  eum  transeunt  qui  adoptavit 

CAPITIS  DEMINVTIO 


Capitis  deminutionis  tria  genera  sunt,  maxima, 
media,  minima :  tria  enim  sunt  quae  habemus, 
libertatem,  civitatem,  familiam.      Igitur  cum  omnia  haec 


Paul.  D. 

4.  5. « 


5.  ilia  adoptio:  i.e.  arrogatio 
(adoptio  hominis  sui  iiiris) .  —  at 
haec :  i.e.  adoptio  (adoptio  homi- 
nis alieni  iuris) . 

Capitis  Deminutio :  the  legal  ca- 
pacity of  persons  depended  upon 
their  civil  position.  Certain  mem- 
bers of  Roman  society  were  legally 
disqualified,  while  others  enjoyed 
varying  degrees  of  legal  capacity, 
according  to  their  position  with 
reference  to  liberty,  citizenship,  and 
domestic  relations.  Only  those 
persons  who  were  free  Roman  citi- 
zens and  independent  members  of 
•d.  familia  were  capable  of  enjoying 
all  the  rights  conferred  by  the  law. 
The  legal  capacity  of  the  individual 
is  designated  as  caput.  Caput  de- 
pends upon  the  civil  position  of  the 


individual  with  reference  to  liber- 
tas,  civitas,  and  familia.  Any 
alteration  in  the  position  of  a  civis 
Romanus  with  reference  to  any  of 
these  three  relations  will  cause  a 
loss  of  his  previous  personality 
(capitis  deminutio),  i.e.  civil  death 
of  previous  personality  (quia  civili 
ratione  capitis  deminutio  morti 
coaequatur,  Gai.  3,  153).  As  //- 
bertas  is  requisite  for  civitas  and 
familia,  its  loss  is  called  capitis 
deminutio  maxima  (serinis  nulluin 
caput  habet) ;  civitas  being  re- 
quired tor  familia,  its  loss  is  called 
media  or  minor;  any  change  in 
domestic  position  (familia)  is 
called  minima.  The  loss  of  the 
higher  degree  involves  the  loss  of 
the  lower. 


136 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

amittimus,  hoc  est  libertatem  et  civitatem  et  familiam, 
maximam  esse  capitis  deminutionem :  cum  vero  amittimus 
civitatem,  libertatem  retinemus,  mediam  esse  capitis  de- 
minutionem :  cum  et  libertas  et  civitas  retinetur,  familia 
5  tantum  mutatur,  minimam  esse  capitis  deminutionem 
constat 

Est  autem  capitis  deminutio  prioris  status  per- 

Gai.  i,  159 

mutatio.  Eaque  tnbus  modis  accidit :  nam  aut 
maxima  est  capitis  deminutio,  aut  minor,  quam  quidam 

10  mediam  vocant,  aut  minima.  Maxima  est  capitis  deminu- 
tio, cum  aliquis  simul  et  civitatem  et  libertatem  amittit ; 
minor  sive  media  est  capitis  deminutio,  cum  civitas  amit- 
titur,  libertas  retinetur ;  quod  accidit  ei  cui  aqua  et  igni 
interdictum  fuerit;  minima  est  capitis  deminutio,  cum  et 

15  civitas  et  libertas  retinetur,  sed  status  hominis  commuta- 
tur ;  quod  accidit  in  his,  qui  adoptantur,  item  in  his,  quae 

10.   Maxima  est  capitis  deminu-  enemy ;   by  surrender  of  a  guilty 

tio :  capiiis  deminutio  maxima  oc-  person  to  the  enemy  for  injury  to 

curs  when  a  civis  Romanus  loses  his  their  ambassadors,  or  for  making 

libertas,  e.g.  by  captivity  (subject  to  a  treaty  not  sanctioned    by  the 

postliiniiiium,  see  note  on  the  word,  Roman   people,  etc. 

p.  85);  by  sale  trans  Tiberim  as  14.  minima  est  capitis  deminutio : 

slave ;  by  sale  pretii  participandi  minima  capitis  deminutio  occurs 

causa ;  by  condemnation  to  death,  when  a  citizen  exchanges  one  caput 

to  the  mines,  etc. ;  by  revocatio  in  for  another  by  any  loss  or  change 

servitut em  tf  liber tusingratus,  etc.  of  position  in  familia,  whether  he 

Cf.  also  note  on  tare,  p.  80.  increases   or  diminishes   his   per- 

12.    minor    capitis    deminutio:  sonal  independence,  e.g.  when  a 

capitis    deminutio    minor    occurs  homo  sui  iuris  becomes  alieni  iuris 

when  a  citizen  loses  his  citizenship,  (e.g.   by  arrogatio  or  in  ntanum 

e.g.  by  banishment  because  of  the  conventio  of  a  woman  sui  iuris)  ; 

inter dictio  aquae  et  ignis ;  by  depor-  when  a  homo  alieni  iiiris  becomes 

tatio  in  the  empire ;  by  emigration  sui  iuris  (by  emancipation   from 

to  a  Latin  colony  or  a  foreign  state  ;  patria  potestas  or  from  a  marriage 

by  desertion  of  a   soldier   to   the  cum  manu  maritt)  ;  when  a  homo 

137 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

coemptionem  faciunt,  et  in  his,  qui  mancipio  dantur  quique 
ex  mancipatione  manumittuntur ;  adeo  quidem,  ut  quotiens 
quisque  mancipetur  aut  manumittatur,  totiens  capite  demi- 
nuatur. 

5  uip.  D.  Intereunt  autem  homines  quidem  maxima  aut 

17,  2, 63, 10     media  capitis  deminutione  aut  morte. 
uip.  D.  Capitis  enim  minutio  privata  hominis  et  fami- 

4-  5. 6  iiae  eius  iura,  non  civitatis  amittit. 

Maxima   est   capitis   deminutio,   cum    aliquis 

10  simul  et  civitatem  et  libertatem  amittit.     Quod 

accidit  in  his,  qui  servi  poenae  efficiuntur  atrocitate  senten- 
tiae,  vel  liberti  .ut  ingrati  circa  patronos  condemnati,  vel 
qui  ad  pretium  participandum  se  venumdari  passi  sunt. 
Minor  sive  media  est  capitis  deminutio,  cum  civitas  quidem 

15  amittitur,  libertas  vero  retinetur.  Quod  accidit  ei,  cui  aqua 
et  igni  interdictum  fuerit,  vel  ei,  qui  in  insulam  deportatus 
est.  Minima  est  capitis  deminutio,  cum  et  civitas  et  liber- 
tas retinetur,  sed  status  hominis  commutatur.  Quod  acci- 
dit in  his,  qui,  cum  sui  iuris  fuerunt, .  coeperunt  alieno 

20  iuri  subiecti  esse,  vel  contra.  Servus  autem  manumissus 
capite  non  minuitur,  quia  nullum  caput  habuit. 

alieni  iuris  changes  paterfamilias  person  for  a  new  person  and,  there- 

(by  adoptio,  by  in  manum  conven-  fore,  lays  down  the  rights  and  du- 

tio  of  a  filiafamilias,  by  arrogatio  ties  of  his -former  personality.    In 

of  a  homo  sui  iuris  who  has  chil-  the  eye  of  the  private  law,  he  suf- 

dren  in  his  potestas,  by  manumis-  fers  civil  death  followed  by  an  im- 

sio  e  mancipio,  etc.).  mediate  resurrection  ;   but  in  the 

5.  Intereunt  homines :  by  the  two  eye  of  the  public  law,  his  person- 

greate'r  changes  in  status  (libertas  ality  remains  unaltered  and  he  suf- 

and  ci-vitas,  called  also  together,  fers  no  loss  of  public  rights  (iura 

capitis  deminutio  magna)  the  in-  civitatis  non   amittit).     See   also 

dividual  suffers  civil  death,  but  by  note  on  Filius,  p.  132. 

the  least  of  the  changes  in  status  7.  Capitis  enim  minutio  privata : 

(fatmlia)  he  exchanges  his  former  with    minutio   sc.    minima.     The 

138 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  i,  13 


GUARDIANSHIP 

Transeamus  nunc  ad  aliam  divisionem.  Nam 
ex  his  personis,  quae  in  potestate  non  sunt, 
quaedam  vel  in  tutela  sunt  vel  in  curatione,  quaedam 
neutro  iure  tenentur.  Videamus  igitur  de  his,  quae  in 
5  tutela  vel  in  curatione  sunt ;  ita  enim  intellegemus  ceteras 
personas,  quae  neutro  iure  tenentur.  Ac  prius  dispiciamus 
de  his  quae  in  tutela  sunt.  Est  autem  tutela,  ut  Servius 
definivit,  ius  ac  potestas  in  capite  libero  ad  tuendum  eum, 
qui  propter  aetatem  se  defendere  nequit,  iure  civili  data  ac 


forms    deminutio,  diminutio,   and 
minntio  were  all  in  common  use. 

Guardianship:  guardianship  (tu- 
tela,  cura,  curatio)  is  an  insti- 
tution whereby  the  legal  capacity 
of  those  persons  sni  iuris  who  are 
wholly  or  partially  incapable  of 
performing  legal  acts  on  account 
of  immature  years,  mental  inca- 
pacity, or  business  inexperience,  is 
completed  and  protection  is  af- 
forded such  incompetent  persons 
in  the  exercise  of  their  legal  rights. 
Guardianship  applies  only  to  per- 
sonae  sui  iuris.  Not  all  personae 
sui  iuris  are  capable  of  independent 
action.  Persons  may  become  sui 
iuris  irrespective  of  age  or  sex  and 
still  be  absolutely  incapable  of  per- 
forming legal  acts  (e.g.  infantes}, 
or  they  may  be  only  partially  capa- 
ble of  such  action  (e.g.-  infantia 
maiores),  or  they  may  be  capable 
but  lack  sufficient  judgment  and 
experience  (e.g.  minor es  XXV 
aunts').  The  Roman  law  therefore 


developed  three  kinds  of  guardian- 
ship, according  to  the  degree  of  in- 
capacity of  the  ward  and  the  degree 
of  authority  conferred  upon  the 
guardian,  viz.:  tutela  impuberum, 
tutela  mulierum,  cura  (curatio} 
puberum.  Personae  alieni  iuris 
required  no  guardian  because  they 
were  already  subordinated  to  the 
power  and  protection  of  another 
(in  potestate,  in  manu,  in  manci- 
pio). 

8.  ius  ac  potestas  in  capite  lib- 
ero :  in  capite  libero  is  equivalent  to 
persona  sui  iuris.  The  principle 
at  the  basis  of  guardianship  was 
twofold.  In  the  earlier  law,  guar- 
dianship (tutela)  was  a  private 
right  (ius  ac  potestas},  analogous 
to  patria  potestas  and  a  substitute 
for  it,  exercised  by  those  persons 
most  interested  in  the  protection 
of  the  ward's  person  and  property 
(Cell.  5,  13).  Later,  guardianship 
was  transformed  into  a  public  office, 
whose  acceptance  was  obligatory 


139 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

permissa.     Tutores  autem  sunt,  quae  earn  vim  ac  potes- 
tatem  habent,  ex  qua  re  ipsa   nomen   ceperunt.     Itaque 
appellantur  tutores  quasi  tuitores  atque  defensores,  sicut 
aeditui  dicuntur  qui  aedes  tuentur. 
5  Sed  impuberes  quidem  in  tutela  esse  omnium 

J  Gai.  i,  189  ...          .  *.  .      .,  ,.          .       . 

civitatium  mre  contmgit,  quis  id  natural!  rationi 
conveniens  est,  ut  is  qui  perfectae  aetatis  non  sit,  alterius 
tutela  regatur.  Nee  fere  ulla  civitas  est,  in  qua  non  licet 
parentibus  liberis  suis  impuberibus  testamento  tutorem 
10  dare;  quamvis,  ut  supra  diximus,  soli  cives  Romani  vide- 
antur  liberos  suos  in  potestate  habere. 

Tutores    constituimtur    tarn    masculis    quam 

feminis.      Sed    masculis    quidem    impuberibus 

dumtaxat  propter  aetatis  infirmitatem,  feminis  autem  tarn 

15  impuberibus  quam  puberibus,  et  propter  sexus  innrmitatem 

et  propter  forensium  rerum  ignorantiam. 

Masculi  puberes  et  feminae  viripotentes  usque 

Inst.  i,  23 

ad  vicesimum  quintum  annum  completum  cura- 
tores  accipiunt ;  qui,  licet  puberes  sint,  adhuc  tamen  huius 
20  aetatis  sunt,  ut  negotia  sua  tueri  non  possint. 

(nam  et  tutelam  et  cur  am  placuit  furiosi,  prodigi),  is  the  lex  Plae- 

publicum  munus  esse)  and  whose  toria  (about  204  B.C.).  By  this 

conduct  was  a  public  duty  (onus).  law  full  majority  (perfecta  aefas, 

10.  ut  supra  diximus:  cf.  text  legitimaaetas)  was  fixed  at  twenty- 

and  note  on  Galatamm,  p.  129.  five  (hence  the  distinction  t;ia- 

15.  propter  sexus  infirmitatem :  iores,  minores  XXV  annis),  and 

for  the  lifelong  tutelage  of  women  any  fraud  practiced  upon  those 

see  text  and  note  on  Veteres,  under  this  age  in  the  conclusion  of 

p.  152.  contracts  (circuniscriptio  adules- 

17.  Masculi  puberes  ad  vicesi-  centiuni)  subjected  the  guilty  per- 

mum  quintum  annum  curatores  acci-  son  to  criminal  prosecution  and 

piunt :  the  earliest  known  provision  the  injured  minor  was  granted  a 

for  the  guardianship  of  ptiberes,  remedy  (exceptio  legis  Plaetoriae') . 

not  otherwise  disqualified  (e.g.  Cf.  also  note  on  si  non,  p.  120. 

140 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  i,  14,  4 


Inst.  i,  23,  2 


Certae  autem  rei  vel  causae  tutor  dari  non 
potest,  quia  personae,  non  causae  vel  rei  datur. 
Item  inviti  adulescentes  curatores  non  acci- 


Inst.  i,  14 


piunt  praeterquam  in  litem ;  curator  enim  et  ad 
5  certam  causam  dari  potest. 

Dari  autem  potest  tutor  non  solum  pater  fa- 
milias,  sed  etiam  films  familias.     Sed  et  servus 
proprius  testamento  cum  libertate  recte  tutor  dari  potest. 
Sed  sciendum   est  eum   et  sine  libertate   tutorem  datum 
10  tacite  et  libertatem  directam  accepisse  videri  et  per  hoc 
recte  tutorem  esse. 


2.  quia  personae,  non  causae  da- 
tur :  the  chief  distinction  between 
tutela  and  cura  appears  in  the  rela- 
tion of  tutor es  and  curatores  to  the 
property  of  their  respective  wards : 
tut  ores  represent  constantly  the 
personality  of  their  wards  in  all' 
proprietary  relations  (tutor  ad  uni- 
•versum  patrinwniuin  datus  esse 
creditur,  Inst.  i,  25,  17).  Addi- 
tional tutores  or  curatores  may  be 
appointed  for  a  single  transaction 
or  for  a  special  purpose  only  (e.g. 
adlileni).  The  essence  of  tutela 
is  the  duty  of  supplying  the  defi- 
ciency in  the  ward's  capacity  to 
perform  legal  acts;  this  is  called 
the  auctoritatis  interpositio  (auc- 
toritas,  augere  in  legal  Latin 
means  '  the  supplying  of  some  de- 
ficiency1), the  tutor  cured  (auge- 
bat)  the  inability  of  his  pupilhis  to 
understand  the  meaning  of  legal 
transactions.  The  essence  of  cura 
was  the  administration  of  property 
(gestio,  administratio)  and,  though 


in  some  cases  the  curator  was 
concerned  with  the  personal  wel- 
fare of  his  ward,  he  was  in  the 
main  charged  with  the  duty  of  pre- 
venting pecuniary  damage  or  loss 
to  him.  In  this  sense  the  maxim, 
tutor  personae  datur,  curator  rei, 
is  true,  but  not  as  commonly  stated, 
that  the  tutor  is  given  to  the  per- 
son of  the  pupil  and  the  curator  to 
the  management  of  his  property 
(e.g.  Harper's  Lat.  Diet.  s.  v.  tu- 
tor). The  tutor  may  have  the 
gestio  of  his  pupil's  property,  as  in 
tilt  el  a  impuberuin ;  or  he  may  lack 
it,  as  in  tutela  mulierum  ;  to  the 
office  of  cttrator,  however,  gestio  is 
essential. 

6.  Dari  potest  tutor  non  solum 
pater  familias,  sed  films  familias  : 
under  the  older  law  the  only  qual- 
ifications for  the  office  of  tutor 
were  citizenship  and  male  sex. 
Those  incapable  of  conducting  the 
office  because  of  immaturity  or 
physical  and  mental  infirmities 


141 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Gai  D.  Tutela  plerumque  virile  officium  est.     Et  sci- 

26.  *. l6         endum  est  nullam  tutelam  hereditario  iure  ad 
alium  transire  ;  sed  ad  liberos  virilis  sexus  perfectae  aetatis 
descendunt  legitimae,  ceterae  non  descendant. 
5  Nerat.  D.  Feminae   tutores  dari  non   possunt,   quia  id 

26. !. l8         munus  masculorum  est,  nisi  a  principe  filiorum 
tutelam  specialiter  postulent. 

Minores  autem  viginti  et  quinque  annis  olim 

1. 1, 25, 13  qu|^em   excusabantur ;   a  nostra  autem   consti- 

10  tutione  prohibentur  ad  tutelam  vel  curam  aspirare,  adeo 

ut  nee  excusatione  opus  fiat.     Qua  constitutione  cavetur, 

ut  nee  pupillus  ad  legitimam  tutelam  vocetur  nee  adultus ; 

cum  erat  incivile  eos,  qui  alieno  auxilio  in  rebus  suis  admi- 

nistrandis  egere  noscuntur  et  sub  aliis  reguntur,  aliorum 

15  tutelam  vel  curam  subire. 

Idem  et  in  milite  observandum  est,  ut  nee  volens  ad 
tutelae  munus  admittatur. 

Complura  senatus  consulta  facta  sunt,  ut  in 
^"j"  ®'         locum  furiosi  et  muti  et  surdi  tutoris  alii  tutores 
20  dentur. 

could  be  represented  by  a  substi-  ship  hold  the  office   (a  principe 

tute.     Even  a  slave  could  be  ap-  filiorum  tutelam  specialiter  pos- 

pointed  by  testament,  but  in  the  tulenf). 

absence  of  express  gift  of  liberty,          3.   perfectae  aetatis  :  for  expla- 

he  was  held  to  receive  his  freedom  nation  see  note  on  Masculi,  p.  140. 
by  implication  (tacite  et  libertatem  12.  pupillus  nee  adultus  :  the  de- 

direclani)  and  hence  could  act  as  finitions  of  pupillus,  adultus,  and 

tutor  (cf.  note  on  Testamento,  p.  91  tutor  in  Harper's  Lett.  Diet,   are 

also).      For  the  filiusfamilias  as  inexact  for  legal  usage.     Pupillus 

tutor,  cf.   note  on  Films,  p.  132.  is  an  impubes,  or,  specifically,  an 

In  the  later  law  and  in  the  law  impubes  not  in  patria  potestas,  but 

of  Justinian,  impuberes,  minores,  in  tutela.     Adultus    (adulescens) 

soldiers,   and    bishops    were    dis-  is  used  specifically  in  legal  Latin 

qualified,   but    women    might    in  to  denote  one  between  the  ages  of 

some     cases     of     near    relation-  fourteen  and  twenty-five. 

142 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  i,  25 


Excusantur  autem  tutores  vel  curatores  variis 
ex  causis :  plerumque  autem  propter  liberos,  sive 
in  potestate  sint  sive  emancipati.  Si  enim  tres  liberos 
quis  superstites  Romae  habeat  vel  in  Italia  quattuor  vel  in 

5  provinciis  quinque,  a  tutela  vel  cura  possunt  excusari  ex- 
emplo  ceterorum  mimerum :  nam  et  tutelam  et  curam 
placuit  publicum  munus  esse.  Sed  adoptivi  liberi  non 
prosunt,  in  adoptionem  autem  dati  naturali  patri  prosunt. 
Item  nepotes  ex  filio  prosunt,  ut  in  locum  patris  succedant, 

10  ex  filia  non  prosunt.  Filii  autem  superstites  tantum  ad 
tutelae  vel  curae  muneris  excusationem  prosunt,  defuncti 
non  prosunt  Sed  si  in  bello  amissi  sunt,  quaesitum  est, 
an  prosint.  Et  constat  eos  solos  prodesse  qui  in  acie  amit- 
tuntur;  hi  enim,  quia  pro  re  publica  ceciderunt,  in  per- 

15  petuum  per  gloriam  vivere  intelleguntur. 


i.  Excusantur  tutores  vel  cura- 
tores variis  ex  causis  :  properly 
qualified  persons  called  to  the  office 
of  guardian  became  thereby  ipso 
iure  guardians  and,  except  in  the 
case  of  those  appointed  by  testa- 
ment, had  no  right  of  refusal.  After 
the  office  came  to  be  classed  among 
the  munera  civilia  (publica),  a 
large  number  of  reasons  deter- 
mined by  law  (excusationes)  gave 
relief  from  the  necessity  of  assum- 
ing the  office  and  also  released  one 
from  continuance  in  it,  if  already 
undertaken.  These  excusationes 
were  developed  chiefly  during  the 
empire,  the  most  important  of 
them  being  :  (a)  the  ins  liberorum 
(according  to  the  lex  fulia  et  Pa- 
pia  Poppaea,  excusing  one  hav- 
ing three  children  Romae,  four  in 


Italia,  five  in  provinciis) ;  (b) 
magistrates  and  those  holding  cer- 
tain offices  were  excused  (e.g.  gui 
res  fisci  administrat ;  qid  curam 
viae  habet,  etc.,  cf.  also  Fr.  Vat. 
134-147) ;  (c)  those  in  certain 
callings  and  professions  were  ex- 
cused (e.g.  grammatict,  medici, 
etc.,  cf.  also  Fr.  Vat.  149)  ;  (d) 
those  already  conducting  three 
guardianships  were  excused  (tria 
ttttelae  onera) ;  (e)  those  already 
burdened  by  poverty,  illness,  ad- 
vanced age,  etc. ;  (/)  those  who 
proposed  another  (nominare)  as 
better  qualified  for  the  office  (po- 
tioris  nominatio)  were  excused  if 
their  nominee  were  accepted  by 
the  magistrate. 

10.  ex  filia  non  prosunt :  the  rea- 
son that  the  children  of  a  daughter 


143 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Item  divus  Marcus  rescripsit  eum,  qui  res  fisci  admini- 
strat,  a  tutela  vel  cura  quamdiu  administrat  excusari  posse. 

Item  qui  rei  publicae  causa  absunt,  a  tutela  et  cura  excu- 
santur.  Sed  et  si  f  uerunt  tutores  vel  curatores,  deinde  rei 
5  publicae  causa  abesse  coeperunt,  a  tutela  et  cura  excu- 
santur,  quatenus  rei  publicae  causa  absunt,  et  interea  cura- 
tor loco  eorum  datur.  Qui  si  reversi  fuerint,  recipiunt 
onus  tutelae  nee  anni  habent  vacationem,  ut  Papinianus 
responsorum  libro  quinto  scripsit ;  nam  hoc  spatium  habent 
10  ad  novas  tutelas  vocati.  Et  qui  potestatem  aliquam  habent, 
excusare  se  possunt,  ut  divus  Marcus  rescripsit,  sed  coep- 
tam  tutelam  deserere  non  possunt. 

Item  Romae  grammatici,  rhetores  et  medici  et  qui  in 
patria  sua  id  exercent  et  intra  numerum  sunt,  a  tutela  vel 
15  cura  habent  vacationem. 

Item  tria  onera  tutelae  non  aff ectatae  vel  curae  praestant 
vacationem,  quamdiu  administrantur. 

Sed  et  propter  paupertatem  excusationem  tribui  tarn 
divi  fratres  quam  per  se  divus  Marcus  rescripsit,  si  quis 
20  imparem  se  oneri  iniuncto  possit  docere.  Item  propter 
adversam  valetudinem,  propter  quam  nee  suis  quidem 
negotiis  interesse  potest,  excusatio  locum  habet.  Simili- 
ter  eum  qui  litteras  nesciret  excusandum  esse  divus  Pius 

were  not  reckoned  was  because  empt  from  public  duties  in  cities 

they  belonged  to  the    family  of  of  different  sizes  was  determined, 

their  own  father  or  paternal  grand-  The  largest  provincial  cities  were 

father,  and  not  to  that  of  their  each  allowed  ten  medici,  fivegram- 

maternal  grandfather  (cf.  note  on  maiici,  and  five  rhetores.    Philoso- 

Multer,  p.  107).     Otherwise  they  phers,  crowned  athletes,  and  jurists 

would  be  counted  twice.  who  were  members  of  the  imperial 

13.   grammatici  et  medici :  by  a  council  were  also  excused  (yaca- 

rescript  of  Antoninus  Pius  (D.  27,  tionem  habent). 
I,  6,  2)  the  number  of  those  ex-          19.  divi  fratres:  i.e.  M.  Aurelius 

144 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


rescripsit;  quamvis  et  imperiti  litterarum  possunt  ad 
administrationem  negotiorum  sufficere.  Item  maior  sep- 
tuaginta  annis  a  tutela  vel  cura  se  potest  excusare. 

Tune  demum  excusandus  est,  qui  prius  datus 

Fr.  Vat.  157 

5  fuerat,  si  is  quern  nommavent  et  potior  necessi: 

tudine  et  idoneus  re  fideque  vel  absens  deprehendatur. 

Testamento  nominatim  tutores  dati  confirman- 
tur  eadem  lege  duodecim  tabularum,  his  verbis : 
'  uti  legassit  super  pecunia  tutelave  suae  rei,  ita  ius  esto ' ; 
10  qui  tutores  dativi  appellantur. 

Permissum  est  itaque  parentibus,  liberis  quos 
in  potestate  sua  habent  testamento  tutores  dare: 
masculini    quidem    sexus    impuberibus,    feminini    autem 


Ulp.  ii,  14 


Gai.  i,  144 


and  L.  Verus,  joint  emperors  161- 
169  A.D.  M.  Aurelius  reigned 
alone  169-177. 

5.  si  is  quern  nominaverit :  the 
privilege  of  exemption  from  the 
munus  tutelae  by  potioris  nomina- 
tio,  on  account  of  its  abuse,  was 
restricted  by  Septimius  Severus 
and  was  altogether  removed  by 
Justinian. 

7.  Testamento  nominatim  tu- 
tores dati :  there  are  three  general 
modes  by  which  tutela  may  arise :  by 
testament  (tutela  testamentarid)  ; 
by  law  (tutela  legitima) ;  by 
magisterial  appointment  (tutela  a 
magistratu  data,  tutela  dativa). 
Tutores  are  therefore  called,  respec- 
tively, —  testamentarii,  legitimi, 
dativi.  By  testament  a  paterfa- 
milias can  appoint  a  tutor  for  his 
impuberes  children  in  sua  potestate 
(including  postumf)  and  for  his 


grandchildren  who  will  become 
suiiuris  at  his  death.  The  tutela 
testamentaria  takes  precedence 
over  every  other  kind,  and  the 
office  of  tutor  is  acquired  ipso  iure 
the  moment  the  inheritance  is  en- 
tered upon. 

9.  uti  legassit  super  pecunia: 
legassit,  archaic  perf.  subj.  (from 
legare,  '  bequeath  ') .     This  phrase 
from  the   Twelve    Tables  is   ex- 
plained thus,  —  latissima  potestas 
tributa  videiur  et  heredis  institu- 
endi  et  legata  et  libertates  dandi, 
tutelas    quoque    constituendi.   — 
pecunia :   used   in  the  old  sense 
of  property ;  and  suae  rei  means 
'  the   rights   belonging   to    family 
law,  as  regards  property  and  power 
of  the   paterfamilias '    (cf.  Grad- 
enwitz,  Hermes,  XXVIII,  p.  329). 

10.  tutores  dativi  appellantur : 
though   the  sources   call    tutores 


ROMAN    LAW IO 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN    LAW 

sexus   cuius   cumque   aetatis    sint,    et    turn    quoque,    cum 
nuptae  sint 

Nepotibus  autem  neptibusque  ita  demum  possumus  tes- 
tamento  tutores  dare,  si  post  mortem  nostram  in  patris  sui 
5  potestatem  recasuri  non  sint.  Itaque  si  films  meus  mortis 
meae  tempore  in  potestate  mea  sit,  nepotes  ex  eo  non 
poterunt  ex  testamento  meo  habere  tutorem,  quamvis  in 
potestate  mea  fuerint;  scilicet  quia  mortuo  me  in  patris 
sui  potestate  futuri  sunt. 

10  Cum  tamen  in  compluribus  aliis  causis  postumi  pro  iam 
natis  habeantur,  et  in  hac  causa  placuit  non  minus  postu- 
mis  quam  iam  natis  testamento  tutores  dari  posse,  si  modo 
in  ea  causa  sint,  ut  si  vivis  nobis  nascantur,  in  potestate 
nostra  riant. 

15  Rectissime  autem  tutor  sic  dari  potest  '  L.  Titium  liberis 
meis  tutorem  do.'  Sed  et  si  ita  scriptum  sit  'liberis  meis 
vel  uxori  meae  Titius  tutor  esto,'  recte  datus  intellegitur. 

Legitimi    tutores    sunt,    qui   ex    lege    aliqua 

Ulp.  ii,  3 

descendunt ;    per    emmentiam    autem    legitimi 
20  dicuntur,  qui  ex  lege  duodecim  tabularum  introducuntur, 

testamento  dati,  '  dativij  the  term  tur),  and  also  those  born  after  the 

is  usually  applied   to   tutores   '  a  execution  of  a  testament  (qui  post 

magistratu  dati?  test  amentum    factum    nasctintur, 

i.  turn  quoque,  cum  nuptae  sint:  vivo  pair e,  i.e.  testator e,  nati).  A 
this  means  of  course  :  cum  nuptiae  grandson  was  postnmus  situs,  if 
sint  sine  manu,  which  was  the  pre-  born  after  the  death  of  his  father, 
vailing  marriage  in  the  time  of  otherwise,  postnmus  alienus.  In 
Gaius.  For  the  tutelage  of  women,  the  latter  case  he  could  not  re- 
see  note  on  Veteres,  p.  152.  ceive  a  tutor  by  the  testament  of 

10.   postumi  pro  iam  natis  habe-  his  grandfather, 
antur :  cf.  note  on  Qui,  p.  78.    Pos-  15.   L.  Titium  liberis  meis  tuto- 

tumi  are  those  born  after  the  death  rem  do :  appointment  of  a  tutor  in  a 

of  their  father  or  other  ascendant  will,  according  to  the  old  ius  civile, 

(qui  post  mortem  parentis  nascun-  must  be  in  the  Latin  language  and 

146 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


sen    palam,   quales   sunt   agnati,   sen    per  consequentiam, 
quales  sunt  patroni. 

uip.  D.  Legitimae   tutelae    lege  duodecim  tabularum 

26, 4,  i  adgnatis   delatae    sunt   et   consanguineis,    item 

5  patronis,  id  est  his  qui  ad  legitimam   hereditatem   admitti 
possint ;   hoc  summa  providentia,  ut  qui  sperarent   hanc 
successionem,  idem  tuerentur  bona,  ne  dilapidarentur. 
Gai  D  Si  plures  sunt  adgnati,  proximus  tutelam  nan- 

26, 4,  9  ciscitur  et,  si  eodem  gradu  plures  sint,  omnes 

10  tutelam  nanciscuntur. 

Ex  eadem  lege  duodecim   tabularum  liberto- 
rum  et  libertarum  tutela  ad  patronos  liberosque 
eorum  pertinet,  quae  et  ipsa  legitima  tutela  vocatur ;  non 


Inst.  i,  17 


in  formal  words,  like  other  testa- 
mentary dispositions.  In  the  post- 
classical  period  the  phraseology 
was  a  matter  of  indifference. 

3.  Legitimae  tutelae  lege  duode- 
cim tabularum  adgnatis  delatae  :  in 
the  absence  of  testamentary  appoint- 
ment, tutor es  are  called  to  the  office 
by  operation  of  law,  i.e.  not  by  the 
will  of  the  testator,  but  by  the  com- 
mand of  the  lawgiver.  According 
to  the  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables, 
following  the  rule  of  intestate  suc- 
cession, those  first  called  to  the 
guardianship  were  the  nearest  male 
agnates  of  the  pupillus  (tutela 
agftatorum).  Cognates,  as  nearest 
intestate  successors,  were  first  ad- 
mitted to  the  tutela  legitima  by 
Justinian  (Nov.  118  and  127). 
After  the  analogy  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  the  guardianship  of  pa- 
trons and  their  children  over  their 


freedmen  (tutela  patronoritin} 
was  developed  per  interpreta- 
tionem,  in  agreement  with  the 
rules  governing  intestate  succes- 
sion and  the  rights  of  patrons  (cf. 
note  on  patrono,  p.  103)  on  the 
principle  that  he  who  is  to  derive 
the  benefit  of  the  inheritance 
ought  also  to  have  the  burden  of 
the  guardianship  (ubi  successionis 
est  emolument  itm,  ibi  et  tutelae 
onus  esse  debet}.  The  father  had 
the  same  right  over  his  emanci- 
pated child  (par ens  manumissor} ; 
the  extraneus  mauumissor  over 
the  one  e  mancipio  emancipatus ; 
and  the  sons  of  the  parens  mantt- 
missor  over  their  previously  eman- 
cipated brothers  and  sisters  (tutor es 
fiduciarii).  The  tutela  legitima 
provided  for  the  welfare  of  the 
guardian  as  well  as  for  that  of 
the  pupils,  inasmuch  as  it  gave 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

quia  nominatim  ea  lege  de  hac  tutela  cavetur,  sed  quia 
perinde  accepta  est  per  interpretationem,  atque  si  verbis 
legis  introducta  esset.  Eo  enim  ipso,  quod  hereditates 
libertorum  libertarumque,  si  intestati  decessissent,  iusserat 
5  lex  ad  patronos  liberosve  eorum  pertinere,  crediderunt 
veteres  voluisse  legem  etiam  tutelas  ad  eos  pertinere,  cum 
et  adgnatos,  quos  ad  hereditatem  vocat,  eosdem  et  tutores 
esse  iussit  et  quia  plerumque,  ubi  successionis  est  emolu- 
mentum,  ibi  et  tutelae  onus  esse  debet. 
10  uip.  D.  Tutoris  datio  neque  imperii  est  neque  iuris- 

26,  i,  6,  2        dictionis,  sed  ei  soli  competit,  cui  nominatim  hoc 
dedit  vel  lex  vel  senatus  consultum  vel  princeps. 

Si   cui   nullus   omnino   tutor  sit,  ei  datur  in 

Gai.  i,  185 

urbe  Roma  ex  lege  Atilia  a  praetore  urbano  et 
15  maiore  parte  tribunorum  plebis,  qui  Atilianus  tutor  voca- 
tur ;  in  provinciis  vero  a  praesidibus  provinciarum  ex  lege 
lulia  et  Titia. 

uip.  D.  Si   quis   sub   condicione  vel   ex  die   tutorem 

26, 2,  ii         dederit,  medio  tempore  alius  tutor  dandus  est, 


the  guardian  the  protection  of  the  for  a  temporary  period,  if  the  reg- 

property  to  which  he  had  the  right  ular  tutor  has  been  appointed  sub 

of  succession  (idem  tuerentur  bona  condicione  vel  ex  die,  or  if  he  is 

ne  dilapidarentur).  absent  in  captivity,  etc.    The  duty 

10.   Tutoris  datio :  sc.  a  magis-  of  making  application  (postulatio 

tratu.    The  appointment  of  guar-  tutoris)   for  a  tutor  dathnis   fell 

dian  was  not  a  function  of  the  mag-  upon  the  nearest  heirs  ab  intestato 

istrate  arising  from  his  imperium.  of  the  pupillu s. 
It  was  a  power  conferred  by  custom  14.  ex  lege  Atilia  a  praetore :  the 

or  by  express  statute.    The  magis-  date  of  the  lex  Atilia  is  uncertain, 

trate  exercised  this  power  of  ap-  It   is   commonly  placed  at   about 

pointment  when  tutores  testamen-  311  B.C.      The  emperor  Claudius 

tarii  and  legitimi  failed,  or  in  case  intrusted  this  duty  to  the  consuls 

of  their  incapacity,  release  or  re-  in  Rome,  later  it  was  the  duty  of  a 

moval.    A  tutor  may  be  thus  given  special  praetor  {praetor  tutelaris)-. 

148 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

quamvis  legitimum  tutorem  pupillus  habeat ;  sciendum  est 
enim,  quamdiu  testamentaria  tutela  speratur,  legitimam 
cessare.  Et  si  semel  ad  testamentarium  devoluta  fuerit 
tutela,  deinde  excusatus  sit  tutor  testamentarius,  adhuc 
5  dicimus  in  locum  excusati  dandum,  non  ad  legitimum 
tutorem  redire  tutelam.  Idem  dicimus  et  si  fuerit  remo- 
tus ;  nam  et  hie  idcirco  abit,  ut  alius  detur. 

Ab  hostibus  quoque  tutore  canto  ex  his  leeri- 

Gai.  i,  187        , 

bus  tutor  peti  debet ;  qui  desmit  tutor  esse,  si  is 
10  qui  captus  est  in  civitatem  reversus  fuerit;  nam  reversus 
recipit  tutelam  iure  postliminii. 

Ne  tamen  et  pupillorum  et  eorum  qui  in  cura- 

Gai.  i,  199  .  r  . r 

tione   sunt  negotia   a   tutonbus  curatonbusque 
consumantur  aut  deminuantur,  curat  praetor,  ut  et  tutores 

15  et  curatores  eo  nomine  satisdent.  Sed  hoc  non  est  per- 
petuum ;  nam  et  tutores  testamento  dati  satisdare  non 
coguntur,  quia  fides  eorum  et  diligentia  ab  ipso  testatore 
probata  est ;  et  curatores,  ad  quos  non  e  lege  curatio  per- 
tinet,  sed  qui  vel  a  consule  vel  a  praetore  vel  a  praeside 

20  provinciae  dantur,  plerumque  non  coguntur  satisdare,  scili- 
cet quia  satis  honesti  electi  sunt. 

Masculi  autem  cum  puberes  esse  coeperint, 

Gai.  i,  196 

tutela  liberantur. 

14.   et  tutores  et  curatores  satis-  tary  guardians  were  not  compelled 

dent :  for  the  security  of  the  pupil-  to    assume     the    munus    tutelae, 

his,  the  guardian,  before  entering  since  they  alone  in  the   classical 

upon  his  duty,  took  an  inventory  law    had    the    right   of   rejection 

of  his  ward's  property  and  (with  (abdicatio)  without   the   requisite 

the  exception  of  the  tutor  testamen-  grounds  for  excuse   (exciisatio  ex 

tarius)  gave  security  (satisdatio)  iusta  causa},  hence  the  fiduciary 

for  the  proper  conduct  of  his  office  character  of  their  office. 
(rem  pupilli  salvarn  fore) .  22.   Masculi  puberes  tutela  liber- 

17.  quia  fides  eorum  ab  testatore  antur :  guardianship  terminates  on 

probata  :     furthermore,    testamen-  the  side  of  the  pupilhis  :  by  death ; 

149 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Item    finitur   tutela,    si   adrogati    sint   adhuc 

' X|  22>  I    impuberes  vel  deportati ;  item  si  in  servitutem 

pupillus  redigatur  vel  ab  hostibus  fuerit  captus.     Sed  et 

si  usque  ad  certam  condicionem  datus  sit  testamento,  aeque 

5  evenit,  ut  desinat  esse  tutor  existente  condicione.     Simili 

modo  finitur  tutela  morte  vel  tutorum  vel  pupillorum.     Sed 

et  capitis  deminutione  tutoris,  per  quam  libertas  vel  civitas 

eius  amittitur,  omnis  tutela  perit.     Minima  autem  capitis 

deminutione  tutoris,  veluti  si  se  in    adoptionem  dederit, 

10  legitima  tantum  tutela   perit,   ceterae   non   pereunt ;    sed 

pupilli    et    pupillae    capitis    deminutio    licet    minima    sit, 

omnes   tutelas  tollit.      Praeterea   qui   ad    certum   tempus 

testamento   dantur   tutores,    finito    eo    deponunt    tutelam. 

Desinunt    autem    esse    tutores,    qui    vel    removentur    a 

15  tutela  ob  id  quod  suspecti  visi  sunt,  vel  ex  iusta  causa 

sese  excusant. 

Sciendum  est  suspecti  crimen  e  lege  duodecim 
tabularum  descendere.     Datum  est  autem   ius 

by  ever}'  capitis  deminutio ;  by  the  sibility  was  established  in  the 
attainment  of  pubertas.  On  the  Roman  law.  Each  case  was  de- 
side  of  the  tutor :  by  completion  termined  by  the  question  whether 
of  the  appointed  term  ;  by  magna  the  person  was  near  the  age  of  pu- 
deminutio  capitis  (also  minima,  in  berty  and  understood  that  he  was 
case  of  tutela  legitima) ;  by  excusa-  doing  wrong  (si  proximus  puber- 
tio  (also  abdicatio^  see  above)  ;  by  tati  sit  et  ob  id  intellegat  se  delin- 
removal  (accusatio  suspecti).  guere,  Gai.  3,  208).  A  pupillus 
2.  in  servitutem  pupillus  redi-  might  be  reduced  to  slavery  (if  he 
gatur :  it  may  be  asked  how  far  a  were  proximus  pubertati  and  un- 
child  under  the  age  of  fourteen'  derstood  the  nature  of  his  act)  for 
was  capable  of  committing  delicts,  the  reasons  given  above,  cf.  note 
and  whether  he  was  amenable  to  on  hire,  p.  80. 
criminal  punishment.  Only  in-  17.  suspecti  crimen :  according 
fantia  maiores  were  capable  of  to  the  Twelve  Tables,  any  one  (in- 
committing  a  wrong,  but  no  defi-  eluding  women  related  to  the  ward) 
nite  age  limit  for  criminal  respon-  may  bring  an  action  (suspectum 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


removendi  suspectos  tutores  Romae  praetori  et  in  pro- 
vinciis  praesidibus  earum  et  legato  proconsulis.  Conse- 
quens  est,  ut  videamus,  qui  possint  suspectos  postulare. 
Et  sciendum  est  quasi  publicam  esse  hanc  actionem,  hoc 
5  est  omnibus  patere.  Quin  immo  et  mulieres  admittuntur 
ex  rescripto  divorum  Severi  et  Antonini,  sed  hae  solae, 
quae  pietatis  necessitudine  ductae  ad  hoc  procedunt,  ut 
puta  mater ;  nutrix  quoque  et  avia  possunt,  potest  et  soror. 
Suspectus  autem  remotus,  si  quidem  ob  dolum,  famosus 
10  est ;  si  ob  culpam,  non  aeque.  Suspectum  enim  eum  puta- 
mus,  qui  moribus  talis  est,  ut  suspectus  sit ;  enimvero  tutor 
vel  curator  quamvis  pauper  est,  fidelis  tamen  et  diligens, 
removendus  non  est  quasi  suspectus. 


postulare}  against  a  tutor  guilty  of 
dishonesty  or  a  breach  of  good 
faith  in  the  conduct  of  his  office 
(qui  non  ex  fide  tutelatn  gerif). 
A  tutor  suspectus  is  removed  and, 
if  guilty  of  dolus,  he  is  branded 
with  infamy  (infamia,  see  Class. 
Diet.}.  Removal  for  other  grounds, 
such  as  business  inability,  indo- 
lence, etc.,  is  not  attended  with 
infamy. 

4.  quasi  publicam  actionem :  an 
actio  publica  was  one  which  made 
a  demand  chiefly  in  the  interest  of 
the  state  or  community,  and  might 
be  instituted  by  any  citizen  re- 
gardless of  his  private  interest  in 
the  result.  The  accusatio  tutoris 
suspecti  is  called  quasi  publica, 
because  it  is  raised  in  the  interest 
of  the  private  rights  of  the  indi- 
vidual ward  and  also  because  it  is 
at  the  same  time  followed,  if  suc- 


cessful, by  criminal  punishment. 
Women  were  permitted  to  bring 
this  action,  though  usually  the 
privilege  of  instituting  a  public 
action  was  denied  them. 

9.  ob  dolum  .  .  .  ob  culpam: 
dolus  implies  malicious  intent  (sic 
definit  Labeo :  dolum  malum  esse 
omnein  calliditatem,  fallaciam, 
machinationem  ad  circumvent- 
etidum,  fallendum,  decipiendum 
alterum  adhibit  am,  D.  4,  3, 
i,  2).  Culpa  implies  negligence 
or  fault,  which  may  be  gross 
(lata)  or  slight  (levis)  :  magna 
negligentia  ctdpa  est,  magna  culpa 
dolus  est,  D.  50,  1 6,  226.  The 
tutor  was  removed  with  infamia 
for  culpa  lata  (lata  culpa  est 
nimia  negligentia,  i.e.  non  intel- 
legere,  quod  omnes  intelligunt,  D. 
50,  1 6,  213,  2).  Cf.  also  note 
on  dolo,  p.  252. 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Veteres  voluerunt  feminas,  etiamsi  perfectae 

aetatis  sint,  propter  animi  levitatem  in  tutela 

esse.     Itaque    si   quis   filio    filiaeque   testamento   tutorem 

dederit  et  ambo  ad  pubertatem  pervenerint,  filius  quidem 

5  desinit  habere  tutorem,  filia  vero  nihilo  minus  in  tutela 

permanet;  tantum  enim  ex  lege  lulia  et  Papia  Poppaea 

iure  liberorum  tutela  liberantur  feminae.     Loquimur  autem 

exceptis  virginibus  Vestalibus,  quas  etiam  veteres  in  hono- 

rem  sacerdotii  liberas  esse  voluerunt,  itaque  etiam  lege  XII 

10  tabularum  cautum  est. 

Feminas  vero  perfectae  aetatis  in  tutela  esse 

Gai.  i,  190  .... 

fere  nulla  pretiosa  ratio  suasisse  videtur;  nam 

quae  vulgo  creditur,  quia  levitate  animi  plerumque  decipi- 

untur  et  aequum  erat  eas  tutorum  auctoritate  regi,  magis 

15  speciosa  videtur  quam  vera ;  mulieres  enim,  quae  perfectae 

aetatis  sunt,  ipsae  sibi  negotia  tractant  et  in  quibusdam 

i.  Veteres  voluerunt  feminas  in  tor.  tutor)  like  other  incompetent 

tutela  esse :  from  the  earliest  times  persons    (e.g.    children,    lunatics, 

all  Roman  women  sni  iuris  were  and  prodigals).     The    reason    is 

under    a    lifelong    guardianship.  more  '  specious  than  true,1  since  in 

This  institution  was  based  not  so  the  classical   law  women   beyond 

much  on  the  helplessness  of  women  the  age  of  puberty  were  capable 

as  on  the  material  interest  which  of  managing  their  own  property, 

their  agnates,  as  heirs  at  law,  had  The     lifelong     guardianship     of 

in  the  protection  and  preservation  women  was  evidently  not  designed 

of  their  property.    The  jurists,  later  to  guard  their  own  interests  alone, 

on,  sought  to  justify  the  perpetual  It  gradually  passed  away,  disap- 

tutelage  of  women  on  grounds  of  pearing  entirely  about  the  begin- 

feminine  frailty  (fragilitas  sexus),  ning  of  the  fourth  century. 
lack  of  business  experience  (for  en-  6.  ex  lege  lulia  et  Papia  Poppaea 

slum  rerum  ignorantia),  unsound  tutela    liberantur:     i.e.    ingenuae 

judgment  (infirmitas  consilii),  and  trium  liberorum  iure;  libertinae, 

intellectual  weakness  (animi  lem-  quattuor  liberorum  iure.     Vestal 

fas)  :   and  that  women   for  these  virgins  were  exempt  from  tutelage, 

reasons  required  a  protector  (/«/-  according   to  a  very  ancient   law 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

causis  dicis  gratia  tutor  interponit  auctoritatem  suam,  saepe 
etiam  invitus  auctor  fieri  a  praetore  cogitur. 

Pupillorum  pupillarumque  tutores  et  negotia 

gerunt   et   auctoritatem   interponunt,  mulierum 

5  autem  tutores  auctoritatem  dumtaxat  interponunt.    Tutoris 

auctoritas  necessaria  est  mulieribus  quidem  in  his  rebus : 

si  lege  aut  legitimo  iudicio  agant,  si  se  obligent,  si  civile 

negotium  gerant,  si  libertae  suae  permittant  in  contubernio 

alieni  servi  morari,  si  rem  mancipii  alienent. 

10  Vxori  quae  in  manu  est  proinde  ac  filiae,  item 

Gai.  i,  148  .        _,..  .     , 

nurui  quae  in  filn  manu  est  proinde  ac  nepti 
tutor  dari  potest. 

In  persona  tamen  uxoris  quae  in  manu  est  recepta  est 
etiam  tutoris  optio,  id  est  ut  liceat  ei  permittere  quern  velit 
15  ipsa  tutorem  sibi  optare,  hoc  modo  TITIAE  VXORI  MEAE 
TVTORIS  OPTIONEM  DO.  Quo  casu  licet  uxori  tutorem  optare 
vel  in  omnes  res  vel  in  unam  forte  aut  duas.  Ceterum  aut 
plena  optio  datur  aut  angusta.  Plena  ita  dari  solet,  ut 
proxime  supra  diximus.  Angusta  ita  dari  solet  TITIAE 

ascribed  to  Numa  (cf.  Plut.  Nitma,  ways  as  tutela  impnberum :  by  tes- 

10,  and  Introd.  3),  confirmed  by  tament,  by  law,  and  by  magisterial 

the  Twelve  Tables  (Gai.  I,  145).  appointment.  The  paterfamilias 

4.  mulierum  tutores  auctorita-  could  name  in  his  testament  a 

tern  interponunt:  guardianship  of  guardian  for  \\isfiltaefamilias  and 

feminae  piiberes  differs  from  that  uxor  in  manu.  The  latter,  how- 

of  all  impuberes  in  that  the  woman  ever,  had  a  right  of  choice  (tutoris 

administers  her  own  property,  her  optio)  by  which  she  could  name  a 

tutor  having  no  gestio  (adminis-  guardian  agreeable  to  her  will. 

tratio  reruni)  over  her  property,  The  husband,  instead  of  desig- 

although  his  auctoritas  was  re-  nating  her  guardian,  gave  his  wife 

quired  in  the  transactions  named  authority  to  make  her  own  selec- 

and  in  several  others.  tion  (tutor  optivus).  This  right 

10.  Vxori  quae  in  manu  est :  might  be  limited  (angusta)  or  un- 

tutela  mulierum  arises  in  the  same  limited  (plena). 

'53 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 
VXORI    MEAE    TVTORIS    OPTIONEM   DVMTAXAT    SEMEL    DO,  aut 

DVMTAXAT  BIS  DO.  Quae  optiones  plurimum  inter  se  dif- 
ferunt.  Nam  quae  plenam  optionem  habet,  potest  semel 
et  bis  et  ter  et  saepius  tutorem  optare  ;  quae  vero  angustam 
5  habet  optionem,  si  dumtaxat  semel  data  est  optio,  amplius 
quam  semel  optare  non  potest;  si  dumtaxat  bis,  amplius 
quam  bis  optandi  facultatem  non  habet.  Vocantur  autem 
hi,  qui  nominatim  testamento  tutores  dantur,  dativi,  qui  ex 
optione  sumuntur,  optivi. 

I0  Et  olim  quidem,  quantum  ad  legem  XII  tabu- 

157      larum  attinet,  etiam  feminae  agnatos  habebant 

tutores.     Sed  postea  lex  Claudia  lata  est,  quae  quod   ad 

f eminas  attinet,  agnatorum  tutelas  sustulit ;  itaque  mascu- 

lus  quidem  impubes  fratrem  puberem  aut  patruum  habet 

15  tutorem,  femina  vero  talem  habere  tutorem  non  potest. 

Praeterea  senatusconsulto  mulieribus  permis- 

Gai.  i,  173  ,  .  .      -  .. 

sum  est  in  absentis  tutons  locum  alium  petere ; 
quo  petito  prior  desinit;    nee  interest,  quam  longe  absit 
is  tutor. 
20  Ex  lege  lulia  de  maritandis  ordinibus  tutor 

Ulp.  II,  20  .  

datur  a  praetore  urbis  ei  mulien  virgmive,  quam 
ex  hac  ipsa  lege  nubere  oportet,  ad   dotem  dandam  di- 

ii.   feminae  agnatos  habebant  their  fathers,  and  of  freedwomen 

tutores  :   by  the  tutela  nndierum  in  that  of  their  patrons. 

legitima  the  same  persons  are  called  16.   senatusconsulto   mulieribus 

to  the  office  as  in  the  case  of  the  permissum  est :  guardians  are  ap- 

tiitela  impiiberum.     The  tutelage  pointed  for  women,  either  perma- 

of   agnates,    which    came    to    be  nently  or  temporarily,  as  when  the 

avoided  in  several  ways,  was  en-  regular  tutor   is    prevented    from 

tirely   removed    by   the    emperor  granting  his  auctoritas  by  absence, 

Claudius.    Tutela  inulierum  there-  youth  (e.g.  if  the  tutor  legititnus  is 

after  was  of  little  significance,  ex-  ^.pupiUus)^  or  physical  and  mental 

cept  in  the   case  of  emancipated  incapacity  (tmit us.  furiosus,  etc.). 

daughters  in  the  guardianship  of  20.   Ex  lege  lulia  de  maritandis 

154 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


cendam  promittendamve,  si  legitimum  tutorem   pupillum 
habeat.     Sed  postea  senatus  censuit,  ut  etiam  in  provinciis 
quoque   similiter   a   praesidibus   earum    ex   eadem    causa 
tutores  dentur. 
5  Item  si  qua  in  tutela  legitima  furiosi  aut  muti 

Gai.  i,  1 80 

sit,  permittitur  ei  senatusconsulto  dotis  constitu- 
endae  gratia  tutorem  petere. 

Curatores  aut  legitimi  sunt,  id  est  qui  ex  lege 
duodecim  tabularum  dantur,  aut  honorarii,  id  est 
10  qui  a  praetore  constituuntur.      Lex  duodecim  tabularum 
furiosum  itemque  prodigum,  cui  bonis  interdictum  est,  in 
curatione  iubet  esse  agnatorum. 


Ulp.   12,  I 


tutor  datur :  according  to  this  law, 
4  A.D.,  freeborn  mothers  of  three 
children  and  freedwomen  bearing 
four  children  were  exempt  from  the 
tntela  legitima  (agnates,  patrons, 
etc.)  as  an  encouragement  to 
marriage  and  a  reward  for  the  rear- 
ing of  children.  Women  could 
also  free  themselves  from  the  limi- 
tations placed  upon  them  by  the 
tntela  legitima  (such  as  the  veto  of 
important  acts)  by  a  fictitious  mar- 
riage with  manns  (coemptio  fiduciae 
causa)  followed  by  remancipatio 
(cf.  note  on  Coemptione,  p.  126). 
The  manumissor  became  tutor,  but 
as  he  was  not  tutor  legitimus,  the 
power  of  veto  was  lost.  All  of 
these  subterfuges  show  the  diffi- 
culty with  which  women  escaped 
from  legal  disabilities  in  the  ear- 
lier law  and  mark  steps  toward 
complete  'emancipation.' 

8.    Curatores  aut  legitimi  aut 
honorarii :  curators  were  appointed 


partly  by  operation  of  law,  partly 
by  the  magistrate.  The  most  im- 
portant kinds  of  cura  were :  cura 
furiosi,  cura  prodigi,  cura  mino- 
r  ia/i,  and  cura  deb  ilium.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Twelve  Tables,  the  cura 
furiosi  and  prodigi  fell  to  the 
agnates  as  those  most  interested 
in  the  preservation  of  their  ward's 
property  (cura  legitima).  Failing 
agnates,  appointment  of  curators 
was  made  by  the  magistrate.  La- 
ter, the  cura  legitima  passed  away 
and  the  praetor  gave  the  necessary 
curators  (cura  dativa,  crtratores 
honorarii).  The  furiosus  had  in 
lucid  intervals  (dilucida  inter- 
valla)  full  capacity  of  action,  at 
other  times  he  could  not  even  ac- 
quire rights  unaided.  The  Twelve 
Tables  placed  the  prodigus  (cut 
bonis  interdictum  esf)  in  an  analo- 
gous position,  requiring  oversight 
because  he  acted  without  reason. 
He  could,  however,  acquire  rights, 


155 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Ulp.  D. 
27,  10,  i 


Lege  duodecim  tabularum  prodigo  interdicitur 
bonorum  suorum  administratio,  quod  moribus 
quidem  ab  initio  introductum  est.  Sed  solent  hodie  prae- 
tores  vel  praesides,  si  talem  hominem  invenerint,  qui  neque 
5  tempus  neque  finem  expensarum  habet,  sed  bona  sua  dila- 
cerando  et  dissipando  profudit,  curatorem  ei  dare  exemplo 
furiosi. 

Furiosi  quoque  et  prodigi,  licet  maiores  viginti 

Inst.  i,  23, 3  .    ,  .  ,  • 

qumque   annis   smt,    tamen    in   curatione   sunt 
10  adgnatorum   ex    lege   duodecim    tabularum.      Sed    solent 
Romae  praefectus  urbis  vel  praetor  et  in  provinciis  prae- 
sides ex  inquisitione  eis  dare  curatores. 

Sed  et  mente  captis  et  surdis  et  mutis  et  qui  morbo  per- 
petuo  laborant,   quia  rebus  suis  superesse  non    possunt, 
15  curatores  dandi  sunt. 


but  could  not  alienate  property  or 
bind  himself  without  the  authority 
of  his  curator.  Curators  appointed 
by  testament  were  admitted  only 
after  the  confirmation  of  a  magis- 
trate. 

13.  mente  captis  et  surdis  et  mu- 
tis :  the  cur  a  debilium  personarum 
included  the  oversight  of  those  per- 
sons incapable  of  managing  their 
own  affairs  because  of  stupidity 
(tnente  capti)  or  bodily  infirmities 
(surdi,  mutt,  morbo  laborantes, 
etc.).  Curatores  were  appointed 
at  the  request  of  such  persons  and 
had  the  administration  of  their 
affairs.  Debiles  were  capable  of 
acquiring,  alienating,  binding  them- 
selves and  making  a  testament. 
A  curator  might  also  be  given  to 
a  nasciturus  in  anticipation  of  an 


inheritance  (ciira  ventris}  ;  for 
the  property  of  one  in  captivity  or 
of  a  bankrupt  (cur  a  bonoruiii)  ; 
for  an  inheritance  not  yet  entered 
upon  (Jiereditas  iacens)  ;  for  the 
conduct  of  a  lawsuit,  etc.  For 
cura  minor um,  see  note  on  si 
non,  p.  1 20. 

Law  of  Things :  res,  in  its 
broadest  sense,  designates  every- 
thing capable  of  private  ownership 
i.e.  property.  Every  object  of 
a  proprietary  right  which  lacks 
personality  (including  slaves,  ho- 
mines) is  called  res.  Res  em- 
braces everything  which  adminis- 
ters to  the  wants  and  requirements 
of  man.  -In  this  sense,  res  are 
divided  into  corporeal  (cot  porales) 
property,  having  a  tangible  exist- 
ence, and  incorporeal  (incorpo- 


156 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Gai.  D. 

i,  8,  i,  i 


THE  LAW  OF  THINGS   (Res) 

Quaedam  rescorporales  sunt,  quaedam  incorpo- 
rates. Corporales  hae  sunt,  quae  tangi  possunt, 
veluti  funclus,  homo,  vestis,  aurum,  argentum  et  denique 
aliae  res  innumerabiles.  Incorporates  sunt,  quae  tangi 
5  non  possunt,  qualia  sunt  ea,  quae  in  hire  consistunt,  sicut 
hereditas,  ususfructus,  obligationes  quoquo  modo  contrac- 
tae.  Nee  ad  rem  pertinet,  quod  in  hereditate  res  corporales 
continentur;  nam  et  fructus,  qui  ex  fundo  percipiuntur, 
corporales  sunt,  et  id  quod  ex  aliqua  obligatione  nobis 
10  debetur  plerumque  corporate  est,  veluti  fundus,  homo,  pecu- 
nia ;  nam  ipsum  ius  successionis  et  ipsum  ius  utendi  fruendi 
et  ipsum  ius  obligationis  incorporate  est.  Eodem  numero 


rales)  property,  having  no  tangible 
existence,  but  existing  only  in  con- 
templation of  law  (in  iure  con- 
sistunf),  e.g.  rights  in  another's 
property,  as  a  usufruct  or  right  of 
way ;  rights  growing  out  of  con- 
tracts ;  rights  of  inheritance,  etc. 
The  right  itself  is  a  res  incorporatis, 
though  the  object  of  that  right,  as 
a  field,  building,  or  slave,  is  a  res 
corporalis.  The  Roman  distinc- 
tion is  derived  from  popular  usage 
rather  than  from  scientific  analysis, 
since,  properly  speaking,  a  right 
of  ownership  of  a  material  object 
is  just  as  intangible  as  a  right 
to  a  right  (e.g.  a  right  to  the 
'  right  of  way '  across  another's 
field). 

3.  fundus,  homo :  for  an  explana- 
tion of  fundus  see  text  and  note 
on  this  word,  p.  1 61.  Homo,  mean- 


ing servus,  is  very  common  in  legal 
Latin  (cf.  the  formula  in  man- 
cipation, '  hunc  ego  hominem  ex 
iure  Quiritium  meum  esse  aio'). 
This  meaning  of  the  word  is  not 
given  adequate  recognition  in  Har- 
per's Lat.  Did. 

5.  qualia  sunt  ea,  quae  in  iure 
consistunt :  '  such  as,  rights '  (quae 
in  iure  consistunt,  cf.  above  on 
Law) .  Hereditas  means  both  the 
substance  of  an  inheritance  and 
also  the  right  of  inheritance,  here 
in  the  latter  meaning.  Vsusfructus 
is  the  right  to  enjoy  the  use  and 
fruits  (ius  utendi  et  fruendi)  of 
another's  property  (see  below, 
Servitudes) .  Obligationes  (see 
below),  i.e.  the  rights  growing 
out  of  a  bond  of  law  (yrinculum 
iuris~)  arising  from  contract  or 
delict. 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


sunt  et  iura  praediorum   urbanorum   et  rusticorum,  quae 
etiam  servitutes  vocantur. 

Modo  videamus  de  rebus.     Quae  vel  in  nostro 

Inst.  2,  i,  pr.  .  . 

patrimonio  vel  extra  nostrum  patrimonium  ha- 
5  bentur.  Quaedam  enim  naturali  iure  communia  sunt 
omnium,  quaedam  publica,  quaedam  universitatis,  quae- 
dam nullius,  pleraque  singulorum,  quae  variis  ex  causis 
cuique  adquiruntur,  sicut  ex  subiectis  apparebit. 
Gal.  D.  Summa  rerum  divisio  in  duos  articulos  dedu- 

io  *•  8>  *  citur,  nam  aliae  sunt  divini  iuris,  aliae  humani. 

Divini  iuris  sunt  veluti  res  sacrae  et  religiosae.     Sanctae 


i .  iura  praediorum  urbanorum  et 
rusticorum :  praedia  urbana,  i.e. 
real  estate  in  buildings  or  rights 
pertaining  to  buildings.  Praedia 
rustica,  i.e.  land  and  rights  per- 
taining to  land.  Although  origi- 
nally the  former  were  urban  and 
the  latter  rural,  the  terms  came  to 
be  applied  irrespective  of  the  sit- 
uation of  the  property  (see  below, 
Servitudes,  p.  188). 

3.  in  nostro  patrimonio  :  patri- 
monium meant  originally  paternal 
property,  since  only patresfamilias 
had  rights  of  ownership,  but  here 
it  means  that  which  may  form  the 
property  of  a  legal  person  and  is 
capable  of  private  ownership.  Res 
extra  patrimonium  are,  therefore, 
those  things  which  are  withdrawn 
from  private  ownership  by  law  or 
by  circumstances.  Certain  things 
are  by  necessity  incapable  of  pri- 
vate ownership,  e.g.  res  divini 
iuris,  while  certain  other  things, 
though  the  property  of  the  state 


set  apart  for  the  common  use  of 
all  citizens,  are  withdrawn  from 
private  ownership  (quae  publicae 
sunt.  nullius  in  bonis  esse  cre- 
duntur,  ipsius  enim  universitatis 
esse  creduntur,  D.  i ,  8,  i ) .  Res  in 
commercio  and  res  extra  commer- 
ciiim  are  terms  in  common  use, 
equivalent  to  res  in  patrimonio 
and  res  extra  patrimonium.  Of 
res,  some  are  by  nature  common 
to  all  men  (res  communes'}  ;  some 
are  set  apart  for  public  use  (res 
publica^e,  res  universitatis) ;  some 
things  are  the  property  of  no  one 
(res  nullius')  ;  but  most  things  are 
the  property  of  individuals  (res 
singulorum) . 

8.  ex  subiectis  apparebit  :   see 
p.  165  of  text. 

9.  Summa  rerum  divisio :  the  di- 
vision of  res  into  those  belonging 
to  divine  law  and  those  belonging 
to  human  law,  is  analogous  to  the 
division  above  of  res  in  patrimo- 
nio and  res  extra  patrimonium. 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 


quoque  res,  veluti  muri  et  portae,  quodammodo  divini  iuris 
sunt.  Quod  autem  divini  iuris  est,  id  nullius  in  bonis  est ; 
id  vero,  quod  humani  iuris  est,  plerumque  alicuius  in  bonis 
est,  potest  autem  et  nullius  in  bonis  esse :  nam  res  heredi- 
tariae,  antequam  aliquis  heres  existat,  nullius  in  bonis  sunt. 
Hae  autem  res,  quae  humani  iuris  sunt,  aut  publicae  sunt 
aut  privatae.  Quae  publicae  sunt,  nullius  in  bonis  esse 
creduntur,  ipsius  enim  universitatis  esse  creduntur;  pri- 
vatae autem  sunt,  quae  singulorum  sunt. 

Sacrae  sunt,  quae  diis  superis  consecratae 
sunt ;  religiosae,  quae  diis  Manibus  relictae  sunt. 
Sed  sacrum  quidem  hoc  solum  existimatur,  quod  ex  aucto- 
ritate  populi  Romani  consecratum  est,  veluti  lege  de  ea  re 
lata  aut  senatusconsulto  facto.  Religiosum  vero  nostra 


Gai.  2,  4 


for  res  divini  iuris  are  not  capable 
of  private  ownership  and  therefore 
are  not  part  of  the  private  law 
(i.e.  res  sacrae,  sanctae,  religi- 
osae}. Res  divini  iuris  are  the 
property  of  nobody  (res  nullius') 
because  they  are  the  property  of 
the  gods  and  are  hence  withdrawn 
from  individual,  private  ownership. 
Res  humani  iuris  may  be  the  prop- 
erty of  nobody,  not  because  they 
are  incapable  of  private  ownership, 
but  because  nobody  has  acquired 
ownership  of  them  {e.g.  wild  game, 
gems  along  the  seashore,  etc.,  nul- 
lius in  bonis  esse) . 

10.  Sacrae  sunt,  quae  diis  superis 
consecratae :  i.e.  aedis,  ara,  sig- 
nin/i,  locus,  pecunia,  cf.  Festus  s.  v. 
sacer  mons.  A  thing  may  become 
res  sacra  through  the  dedicatio  of 
the  people  by  a  definite  lex  and  the 


consecratio  of  the  Pontifex  Maxi- 
mus.  These  proceedings  should 
occur  in  due  form.  Cicero  argued, 
on  his  return  from  exile,  that  his 
house  had  not  been  made  a  res 
sacra  with  due  regard  to  divine 
law.  In  the  appeal  which  he 
carried  to  the  pontiffs,  he  main- 
tained that  the  dedicatio  was  not 
valid.  The  pontiffs  decided,  fa- 
vorably to  Cicero's  contention,  that 
a  dedicatio  must  occur  at  the  hand 
of  a  magistrate  designated  by 
name,  formally  intrusted  with  this 
duty  by  the  popular  assembly. 
For  an  account  of  this  decision 
see  ad  Att.  4,  2 ;  also  de  Dom.  20, 

45.  53- 

14.  Religiosum :  a  thing  may  be 
made  religiosa  by  a  private  act, 
as  by  the  burial  of  a  dead  body. 
The  place  of  interment,  along  with 


159 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN   LAW 

voluntate  facimus  mortuum  inferentes  in  locum  nostrum, 
si  modo  eius  mortui  funus  ad  nos  pertineat.  Sanctae 
quoque  res,  velut  muri  et  portae,  quodammodo  divini 
iuris  sunt. 

5  Marcian.D.        Sanctum  est,  quod   ab  iniuria  hominum  de- 
J- 8- 8  f  ensum    atque   munitum    est.     Sanctum   autem 

dictum  est  a  sagminibus  :  sunt  autem  sagmina  quaedam 
herbae,  quas  legati  populi  Romani  ferre  solent,  ne  quis 
eos  violaret,  sicut  legati  Graecorum  f  erunt  ea  quae  vocantur 

10  cerycia.  In  municipiis  quoque  muros  esse  sanctos  Sabi- 
num  recte  respondisse  Cassius  refert,  prohiberique  oportere 
ne  quid  in  his  immitteretur. 

*  uip.  D.  Purus   autem  locus  dicitur,  qui  neque   sacer 

".  7. 2. 4       neque  sanctus  est  neque  religiosus,  sed  ab  om- 

15  nibus  huiusmodi  nominibus  vacare  videtur. 

Et  quidem  naturali  iure  communia  sunt  om- 

Inst.  2,1,1. 

mum  haec :  aer  et  aqua  pronuens  et  mare  et 
per  hoc  litora  maris.  Nemo  igitur  ad  litus  maris  accedere 
prohibetur,  dum  tamen  villis  et  monumentis  et  aedificiis 

whatever  may  be  erected  upon  it,  they  may  be  entirely  independent 

becomes  a  locus  religiosus,  if  it  is  of  ownership,  e.g.  things  existing 

intended   that   the    interment    be  still  in  a  state  of  nature,  as  wild 

permanent  and  that  the  place  shall  animals,  gems  along  the  seashore, 

become  a  sepulcher.     In  the  law  etc.     There  may  be  also  res  which 

of  Justinian,   res  religiosae  were  are  incapable  of  absolute   private 

confined  to  places  of  entombment,  ownership    because   they  are   the 

but  in  the  earlier  law,  sacred  spots  common  property  of  mankind,  e.g. 

in  Rome  were  regarded  as  loca  re-  air,  running  water,  the  high   sea, 

ligiosa,  e.g.   Casa  Romuli,  Ficus  the  seashore,  etc. 
Ruminalis.  19.  villis  et  monumentis  et  aedi- 

16.   iure  communia  sunt  omnium  ficiis  abstineat:  although  the  sea- 

haec :  most  res  humani  iuris  are  shore  is  a  res  communis  omnium, 

in   commercio.     They  may  be  in  nevertheless  whatever  part  of  it  is 

the  control  of  private  persons  or  occupied  by  villas,  etc.,  acquires  the 

1 60 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE  ROMAN   LAW 

abstineat,  quia  non  sunt  iuris  gentium,  sicut  et  mare.  Flu- 
mina  autem  omnia  et  portus  publica  sunt,  ideoque  ius 
piscandi  omnibus  commune  est  in  portubus  fluminibusque. 
Est  autem  litus  maris,  quatenus  hibernus  fluctus  maximus 
5  excurrit.  Riparum  quoque  usus  publicus  est  iuris  gentium, 
sicut  ipsius  fluminis,  itaque  navem  ad  eas  appellere,  funes 
ex  arboribus  ibi  natis  religare,  onus  aliquid  in  his  reponere 
cuilibet  liberum  est,  sicuti  per  ipsum  flumen  navigare.  Sed 
proprietas  earum  illorum  est,  quorum  praediis  haerent.  Qua 

10  de  causa  arbores  quoque  in  isdem  natae  eorundem  sunt 
Litorum  quoque  usus  publicus  iuris  gentium  est,  sicut 
ipsius  maris  et  ob  id  quibuslibet  liberum  est  casam  ibi 
imponere,  in  qua  se  recipiant,  sicut  retia  siccare  et  ex  mare 
deducere.  Proprietas  autem  eorum  potest  intellegi  nullius 

15  esse,  sed  eiusdem  iuris  esse,  cuius  et  mare  et  quae  subia- 
cent  mari,  terra  vel  harena. 

uip.  D.  43,          Loca  enim  publica  utique  privatorum  usibus 
deserviunt,  hire  scilicet  civitatis,  non  quasi  pro- 
pria  cuiusque. 

20  iav.  D.  50,  Fundus  est  omne,  quidquid  solo  tenetur. 
!6,  us  Ager  est,  si  species  fundi  ad  usum  hominis 

comparatur. 

character  of  a  res  in   commercio  imperiuin    habet,  populi  Romani 

and   loses   its   character  as    litus  esse  arbitror,  D.  43,  8,  3). 
maris  so  long  as  the  structure  re-  20.   Fundus  .  .  .  Ager :  still  an- 

mains  and  does  not  interfere  with  other  division  of  things  was  that  into 

the  public  use  of  the  sea  and  sea-  res  mobiles  and  res  iinmobiles.    The 

shore  (in  litore  hire  gentium  aedi-  latter  consist  of  the  soil  and  what  is 

ficarelicere,  D.  43, 8, 4).  Justinian  attached  to  it  (solum  et  res  soli, 

classes   the   seashore    among  res  \.z.solocohaerentes).    A  definitely 

communes,  but  Celsus  regarded  it  defined  portion  of  the  solum  was 

as  the  property  of  the  state  pos-  called  f undies  or  ager.     The  dis- 

sessing  the  territory  along  the  coast  tinction   between  solum  Italicum 

(litora,  in  quae  populus  Romanus  and  solum  provinciale  was  impor- 

ROMAN   LAW  —  II  I  6 1 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Ulp.  D.  50, 
16,60 


Locus  est  non  fundus,  sed  portio  aliqua  fundi, 
fundus  autem  integrum  aliquid  est.  Et  ple- 
rumque  sine  villa  locum  accipimus,  ceterum  adeo  opinio 
nostra  et  constitutio  locum  a  fundo  separat,  ut  et  modicus 
5  locus  possit  fundus  dici,  si  fundi  animo  eum  habuimus. 
Non  etiam  magnitude  locum  a  fundo  separat,  sed  nostra 
affectio  et  quaelibet  portio  fundi  poterit  fundus  dici,  si  iam 


tant  up  to  the  time  of  its  removal 
by  Justinian.  The  ties  civile  was 
applicable  only  to  the  former ;  the 
latter,  as  property  of  the  state,  was 
not  capable  of  private  ownership. 
The  title  to  the  solum  provinciate 
was  in  the  sovereign  power  (in 
provincial*  solo  dominium  populi 
Romani  est  vel  Caesaris,  nos  au- 
tem  possessionein  tantuin  velusuin- 
fructum  habere  videmur,  Gai.  2, 
7).  There  is  the  further  division 
of  solum  provincial  into  praedia 
stipendiaria  and  praedia  tributa- 
ria,  according  as  land  is  situated 
in  the  territory  belonging  respec- 
tively to  the  Roman  people  or  to 
the  private  fiscus  of  the  emperor. 
Res  immobiles  consist  of  prae- 
dia rustica  and  praedia  urbana, 
according  to  their  economic  char- 
acter as  land  or  appurtenances  to 
land.  Land  obtained  by  conquest 
was  reserved  partly  for  secular  and 
partly  for  religious  purposes.  Be- 
yond such  reserved  portions  its 
uses  were  determined  according  to 
its  character  as  arable  or  not  ara- 
ble land.  If  arable,  it  was  sur- 
veyed (agri  limitati)  and  devoted 
to  the  establishment  of  coloniae 


(ager  assignatns)  or  to  individuals 
(ager  viritanus},  or  sold  (ager 
quaestorins)  or  leased  for  a  defi- 
nite rent  (ager  vectigalis).  Un- 
cultivated land,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  not  surveyed,  but  it  was  as- 
signed to  individuals  for  their 
possession  and  use  for  the  annual 
payment  of  a  crop  rent,  one  tenth 
of  grain  and  one  fifth  of  small 
fruits  (agri  occupatorii,  arcifinii), 
or  set  apart  for  public  forests  and 
pastures  (silvae  et  pascua  publica) 
in  return  for  a  fixed  rent  (called 
1  scripturaj  qtria  piiblicanus  scri- 
bendo  conficit  rationein  cum  pas- 
tore,  Festus). 

Of  res  mobiles,  some  are  capable 
of  motion  through  their  own  power 
(res  se  tnoventes,  am'matia),  i e. 
slaves  and  beasts.  Of  beasts,  there 
are  two  kinds,  those  enjoying  their 
natural  freedom  (ferae  bestiae} 
and  those  which  have  been  tamed 
or  are  by  nature  tame  (mansuefac- 
tae,  mansuetae).  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  latter  class  are  beasts 
of  burden  (animalia  quae  collo 
dorsove  domantur).  Cf.  res  man- 
cipi  below  and  Ulp.  19,  i,  text, 
p.  163. 


162 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

hoc  constituerimus.  Nee  non  et  fundus  locus  constitui 
potest,  nam  si  eum  alii  adiunxerimus  fundo,  locus  fundi 
efficietur.  Loci  appellationem  non  solum  ad  rustica,  verum 
ad  urban  a  quoque  praedia  pertinere  Labeo  scribit.  Sed 
5  fundus  quidem  suos  habet  fines,  locus  vero  latere  potest, 
quatenus  determinetur  et  definiatur. 

Fiorent.  D.  Fundi  appellatione  omne  aedificium  et  omnis 
50,16,211  ager  continetur.  Sed  in  usu  urbana  aedificia 
aedes,  rustica  villae  dicuntur.  Locus  vero  sine  aedificio  in 

10  urbe  area,  rure  autem  ager  appellatur.  Idemque  ager  cum 
aedificio  fundus  dicitur. 

uip.  D.  Vrbana    praedia   omnia    aedificia    accipimus, 

50, 16, 198  non  soium  ea  quae  sunt  in  oppidis,  sed  et  si 
forte  stabula  sunt  vel  alia  meritoria  in  villis  et  in  vicis,  vel 

15  si  praetoria  voluptati  tantum  deservientia,  quia  urbanum 
praedium  non  locus  facit,  sed  materia.  Proinde  hortos 
quoque,  si  qui  sunt  in  aedificiis  constituti,  dicendum  est 
urbanorum  appellatione  contineri.  Plane  si  plurimum 
horti  in  reditu  sunt,  vinearii  forte  vel  etiam  holitorii,  magis 

20  haec  non  sunt  urbana. 

Sunt    provincialia   praedia,   quorum    alia   sti- 

Gai.  2,  21  .....         ..  .  „  .  ... 

pendiana,  aha  tnbutana  vocamus.     btipendiana 
sunt  ea,  quae  in  his  provinces  sunt,  quae  propriae  populi 
Romani  esse  intelleguntur  ;  tributaria  sunt  ea,  quae  in  his 
25  provinciis  sunt,  quae  propriae  Caesaris  esse  creduntur. 

Omnes  res  aut  mancipi  sunt  aut  nee  mancipi. 
Mancipi  res  sunt  praedia    in  Italico  solo,  tarn 

19.    holitorii :  vegetable  gar  dens,  yards';  horti  holitorii,  i  vegetable 

found  in  Harper's  Lat.  Diet.  s.  v.  gardens.' 

olitorius,  formed  from  holus, <  vege-  26.  res  mancipi  aut  nee  mancipi : 

table.'     Horti,   <  ornamental  gar-  mancipi  is   the    contracted    gen. 

dens '  ;      horti    vinearii,     '  vine-  sing,  (mancipif)  stereotyped  form 

163 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


rustica,  qualis  est  f  undus,  quam  urbana,  qualis  domus  ;  item 
iura  praediorum  rusticorum,  velut  via,  iter,  actus,  aquae- 
ductus ;  item  servi  et  quadrupedes,  quae  dorso  collove 
domantur,  velut  boves,  muli,  equi,  asini.  Ceterae  res  nee 
S  mancipi  sunt.  Elefanti  et  cameli  quamvis  collo  dorsove  do- 
mentur,  nee  mancipi  sunt,  quoniam  bestiarum  numero  sunt. 
Magna  differentia  est  inter  mancipi  res  et  nee 
mancipi.  Nam  res  nee  mancipi  ipsa  traditione 
pleno  iure  alterius  fiunt,  si  modo  corporales  sunt  et  ob  id 


Gai.  a,  18 


which  was  still  retained  in  legal 
Latin  after  the  long  forms  in  -«' 
prevailed  (end  of  Augustan  age). 
For  the  negative,  see  Harpers 
Lat.  Diet.  s.  v.  neqtie. 

The  terms  res  mancipi  and  nee 
mancipi  were  of  much  significance 
in  the  early  law  and  down  to  the 
classical  period,  but  they  disap^ 
peared  from  the  post-classical  law. 
Manns  meant  in  early  law  the 
power  of  i\\t  paterfamilias  over  the 
persons  and  things  in  his  familia 
(cf.  note  on  de  manu,  p.  88).  Man- 
cipare  (manu-capere)  meant  the 
acquiring  of  manns,  i.e.  ownership 
(dominium).  Mancipium  (older 
form  mancHpiutn,  showing  the 
vowel  progression  from  man-ca- 
piuni)  had  three  distinct  mean- 
ings: power  of  the  housefather 
(synonymous  with  manus) ;  the 
thing  over  which  this  power  was 
exercised  (especially  slaves)  ;  the 
legal  process  by  which  certain 
things  were  acquired  and  alienated 
(real  estate  in  Italy  and  certain 
appurtenances  to  real  estate) .  The 
term  res  mancipi  was  derived  from 


the  last  meaning.  It  designated 
those  things  acquired  or  alienated 
by  the  process  called  mancipium 
(later  mancipatio).  Transfer  by 
mancipium  alone  gave  full  owner- 
ship (dominiitm  ex  iure  Qiiiri- 
tium}.  Those  things  mentioned 
in  the  text  as  res  mancipi  origi- 
nally constituted  the  property  of 
\.\\&  familia.  All  other  things  (res 
nee  mancipi)  were  classed  as  pecu- 
nia,  hence  in  the  old  formula  of 
wills,  ' familia  pecniiiaqite  mea? 
etc.  There  is  no  difference  be- 
tween mancipium  and  mancipatio 
as  terms  of  procedure. 

2.  iura  praediorum  rusticorum  : 
for  the  explanation  of  these  rights 
appertaining  to  real  property,  called 
by  the  Romans  Servitudes  (cf.  the 
English  Easements),  see  below, 
text  and  notes,  p.  188.  Elephants 
and  camels,  not  being  native  to 
Italy,  were  not  regarded  as  among 
domesticated  beasts  of  burden  and 
were  hence  res  nee  mancipi. 

8.  traditione  pleno  iure  alterius 
fiunt :  in  practice  the  importance 
of  the  distinction  between  res 


164 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


recipiunt  traditionem.  Itaque  si  tibi  vestem  vel  aurum  vel 
argentum  tradidero  sive  ex  venditionis  causa  sive  ex  dona- 
tionis  sive  quavis  alia  ex  causa,  statim  tua  fit  ea  res,  si 
modo  ego  eius  dominus  sim.  Mancipi  vero  res  sunt,  quae 
5  per  mancipationem  ad  alium  transferuntur ;  unde  etiam 
mancipi  res  sunt  dictae. 

ACQUISITION  OF  OWNERSHIP  (Jure  Gentium) 


Quarundam  rerum  dominium  nanciscimur  iure 
gentium,  quod  ratione  naturali  inter  omnes  ho- 
mines peraeque  servatur,  quarundam  iure  civili,  id  est  iure 


Gai.  D. 
41, 1, 1 


mancipi  and  res  nee  mancipi  lay  in 
the  fact  that  complete  ownership 
according  to  the  terms  of  the  ins 
civile  (ex  hire  Quiritium)  could 
be  acquired  only  by  a  formal  trans- 
action to  which  ci-ves  Romani  alone 
were  eligible,  i.e.  the  solemn  man- 
cipatio  or  in  iure  cessio  (see  be- 
low, text  p.  183)  ;  whereas  res  nee 
mancipi  could  pass  by  an  informal 
act  of  delivery  of  possession  (tra- 
ditio)  attended  by  an  intention  to 
confer  ownership  and  having  as  a 
basis  for  the  transaction  an  under- 
lying fact  (causa)  as  a  reason  for 
the  operation. 

Acquisition  of  Ownership :  the 
Romans  called  ownership  of  corpo- 
real things  dominium.  The  owner 
of  the  thing  forming  part  of  a  per- 
son's property  was  called  carports 
dominies,  in  distinction  from  one 
who  has  merely  a  right  in  the 
property  of  another,  i.e.  a  ins  in  re 
(aliena).  Rights  of  property  may 


be  absolute  or  limited.  They  are 
absolute  when  the  owner  possesses 
full  legal  disposition  of  the  thing 
to  the  exclusion  of  every  other 
person.  This  in  Roman  phrase- 
ology was  a  full  and  free  property 
(proprietas  plena).  Proprietary 
right  is  limited  when  the  right  to 
use  or  enjoy  the  thing  is  separated 
from  the  ownership  and  belongs  to 
another,  or  where  any  other  real 
right  in  the  thing  restricted  the 
rights  of  ownership.  The  owner 
was  then  said  to  possess  the  naked 
property  (tiuda  proprietas),  i.e. 
dominium  stripped  of  part  of  its 
rights.  The  law  prescribes  cer- 
tain modes  by  which  property  may 
be  acquired.  Acquisition  (acqui- 
sitid)  may  be  per  universitatem, 
e.g.  when  property  is  acquired  in 
.an  entire  inheritance,  with  all  the 
rights  and  duties  involved ;  or  it 
may  be  rerum  singular  um,  as 
when  property  in  single  things  is 


165 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 

proprio  civitatis  nostrae.  Et  quia  antiquius  ius  gentium 
cum  ipso  genere  humano  proditum  es't,  opus  est,  ut  de 
hoc  prius  referendum  sit. 

Omnia  igitur  animalia,  quae  terra,  mari,  caelo  capiuntur, 
5  id  est  ferae  bestiae  et  volucres  et  pisces,  capientium  fiunt. 

Quod  enim  nullius  est,  id  ratione  naturali  occupanti  con- 
ceditur.  Nee  interest  quod  ad  feras  bestias  et  volucres, 
utrum  in  suo  fundo  quisque  capiat  an  in  alieno.  Plane  qui 
in  alienum  fundum  ingreditur  venandi  aucupandive  gratia, 
10  potest  a  domino,  si  is  provident,  iure  prohiberi  ne  ingre- 
deretur.  Quidquid  autem  eorum  ceperimus,  eo  usque  nos- 
trum esse  intellegitur,  donee  nostra  custodia  coercetur ; 
cum  vero  evaserit  custodiam  nostram  et  in  naturalem 
libertatem  se  receperit,  nostrum  esse  desinit  et  rursus 
15  occupantis  fit. 

Naturalem  autem  libertatem  recipere  intellegitur,  cum 
vel  oculos  nostros  effugerit  vel  ita  sit  in  conspectu  nostro, 
ut  difficilis  sit  eius  persecutio.  Illud  quaesitum  est,  an 

acquired.    Acquisitio  rerutn  singu-  COttcedihtr)*     f  res     n  it  I' i  its    cedit 

larum  may  be  civilis  or  naturalis,  occupanti'   (as  stated  in  modern 

i.e.  in  accordance  with  the  require-  times).      In   this   connection  the 

ments   of  the   ins   civile  or  with  Romans  meant  by  res  nullius :  a 

those  of  the  ius  gentium  (naluralis  thing   which    has   never   had    an 

ratio).      The   acquisition   of   res  owner  (as  wild  game,  undiscovered 

singulae    is    first   considered    (cf.  islands,  gems   picked   up   on   the 

noteon  peri<ni7>erstfatem,p.  2$<)).  seashore);  or  a  thing  which  has 

4.    Omnia  animalia,  quae  terra,  been    abandoned    by    its    former 

mari :  the  first  mode  of  acquisition  owner,  voluntarily,  with  the  inten- 

iure  gentium  is  occupatio  (Occu-  tion  of  relinquishing  his  proprie- 

pancy  of  English  law).     It  is  the  tary  right   in  it  (as  derelicts,  or 

acquisition  of  title  to  a  res  nnllhts  largesses  thrown  to  a  crowd), 
by  first  seizure  and  possession,  with  8.   utrum  in  suo  fundo  quisque 

the  intention  (animus)  to  make  it  capiat  an :    hunting,  fishing,  and 

one's  property  (quod  enim  nullius  fowling  were  entirely  free  in  Roman 

est  id  ratione  naturali  occupanti  times,  so  that  game  captured  on 

166 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

fera  bestia,  quae  ita  vulnerata  sit,  ut  capi  possit,  statim 
nostra  esse  intellegatur.  Trebatio  placuit  statim  nostram 
esse  et  eo  usque  nostram  videri,  donee  earn  persequamur, 
quod  si  desierimus  earn  persequi,  desinere  nostram  esse 
5  et  rursus  fieri  occupantis ;  itaque  si  per  hoc  tempus, 
quo  earn  persequimur,  alius  earn  ceperit  eo  animo,  ut 
ipse  lucrifaceret,  furtum  videri  nobis  eum  commississe. 
Plerique  non  aliter  putaverunt  earn  nostram  esse,  quam 
si  earn  ceperimus,  quia  multa  accidere  possunt,  ut  earn 

10  non  capiamus,  quod  verius  est.  Apium  quoque  natura 
fera  est ;  itaque  quae  in  arbore  nostra  consederint, 
antequam  a  nobis  alveo  concludantur,  non  magis  nostrae 
esse  intelleguntur  quam  volucres,  quae  in  nostra  arbore 
nidum  fecerint.  Ideo  si  alius  eas  incluserit,  earum 

15  dominus  erit.  Favos  quoque  si  quos  hae  fecerint,  sine 
furto  quilibet  possidere  potest ;  sed  ut  supra  quoque 
diximus,  qui  in  alienum  fundum  ingreditur,  potest  a 
domino,  si  is  providerit,  hire  prohiberi  ne  ingrederetur. 
Examen,  quod  ex  alveo  nostro  evolaverit,  eo  usque 

20  nostrum  esse  intellegitur,  donee  in  conspectu  nostro 
est  nee  difficilis  eius  persecutio  est ;  alioquin  occupantis 
fit.  Pavonum  et  columbarum  fera  natura  est  nee  ad  rem 

the   property   of  another   became  case  of  the  latter,  detention  alone 

the  undisputed    property    of    the  is  required.     As  a  swarm  of  bees 

huntsman.     The   term  game,  be-  has  no  intention  of  returning,  it 

ing  more  comprehensive  than  in  continues  to  be   the   property  of 

modern  times,  embraced  also  bees,  the    owner   of    the   hive  as   long 

peacocks,  and  doves.    Ofwildani-  only   as  he   keeps  the   swarm  in 

mals   (ferae  naturae)  there  is  a  sight   and   has  the  possibility  of 

distinction   between   those   partly  recapturing   it.      In   the   case    of 

tamed,   as    deer,   peacocks,   bees,  tame   animals,  straying  does  not 

etc.,  and  game  in  a  state  of  nature.  extinguish  the  rights   of  owners, 

Property  in  the  former  ceases  when  even  though  animus  revertendi  is 

the  animus  revertendi  ceases  ;  in  absent. 

167 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

pertinet,  quod  ex  consuetudine  avolare  et  revolare  solent ; 
nam  et  apes  idem  faciunt,  quarum  constat  feram  esse 
naturam ;  cervos  quoque  ita  quidam  mansuetos  habent,  ut 
in  silvas  eant  et  redeant,  quorum  et  ipsorum  feram  esse 
5  naturam  nemo  negat.  In  his  autem  animalibus,  quae  con- 
suetudine abire  et  redire  solent,  talis  regula  comprobata 
est,  ut  eo  usque  nostra  esse  intellegantur,  donee  revertendi 
animum  habeant,  quod  si  desierint  revertendi  animum 
habere,  desinant  nostra  esse  et  fiant  occupantium.  Intelle- 

10  guntur  autem  desisse  revertendi  animum  habere  tune,  cum 
revertendi  consuetudinem  deseruerint.  Gallinarum  et  anse- 
rum  non  est  fera  natura ;  palam  est  enim  alias  esse  feras 
gallinas  et  alios  feros  anseres.  Itaque  si  quolibet  modo 
anseres  mei  et  gallinae  meae  turbati  turbataeve  adeo 

15  longius  evolaverint,  ut  ignoremus  ubi  sint,  tamen  nihilo 
minus  in  nostro  dominio  tenentur.  Qua  de  causa  furti 
nobis  tenebitur,  qui  quid  eorum  lucrandi  animo  adprehend- 
erit.  Item  quae  ex  hostibus  capiuntur,  iure  gentium  statim 
capientium  fiunt ;  adeo  quidem,  ut  et  liberi  homines  in  ser- 

20  vitutem  deducantur ;  qui  tamen,  si  evaserint  hostium  potes- 

18.   quae  ex  hostibus  capiuntur :  the    soldiers    capturing    it.     The 

the  principle  of  Occupancy  (occupa-  principle  oi  postliminium  operated 

tid)  was  extended  in  ancient  times  in  cases  of  prizes  of  war,  when 

to  the  property  and  persons  of  ene-  they  fell  into  the  hands  of  their 

mies  captured  in  war.     Whatever  original  owners  (postliminium  est 

property  of  the  enemy  (res  hostiles)  z'us  anrissae  rei  recipiendae  ab  ex- 

was  taken  within  Roman  posses-  traneo  et  in  statumpristinum  resti- 

sions  became  the  property  of  those  tuendae,  D.  49,  15,  19).     See  also 

seizing   it.     Booty  of  war,   how-  text  and   note   on   postliminiiiin. 

ever,  as  a  rule  fell  to  the  victorious  p.  85.     According  to  Cicero  (Top. 

state,  the  army  being   the   mere  8,  36),  those  things  which  reverted 

representative  of  the  state.     Occa-  to  their  original  owner  by  postli- 

sionally  movable  property  was  al-  minium  were  :  ships  of  war,  slaves, 

lowed  to  become  the  property  of  horses,  mules.  Cf.  also  0.49, 15, 2. 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


tatem,  recipiunt  pristinam  libertatem.  Praeterea  quod  per 
alluvionem  agro  nostro  flumen  adicit,  iure  gentium  nobis 
adquiritur.  Per  alluvionem  autem  id  videtur  adici  quod 
ita  paulatim  adicitur,  ut  intellegere  non  possimus,  quantum 
5  quoquo  momento  temporis  adiciatur.  Quod  si  vis  fluminis 
partem  aliquam  ex  tuo  praedio  detraxerit  et  meo  praedio 
attulerit,  palam  est  earn  tuam  permanere.  Plane  si  longi- 
ore  tempore  fundo  meo  haeserit  arboresque,  quas  secum 
traxerit,  in  meum  fundum  radices  egerint,  ex  eo  tempore 
10  videtur  meo  fundo  adquisita  esse.  Insula  quae  in  mari 
nascitur  (quod  raro  accidit)  occupantis  fit,  nullius  enim 


i.  quod  per  alluvionem :  passing 
from  occupatio  as  a  mode  of  acqui- 
sition, the  text  next  mentions  va- 
rious ways  in  which  property  may 
be  acquired  without  any  act  of 
possession  on  the  part  of  the  one 
acquiring,  but  rather  by  some  in- 
crease in  the  thing  already  owned, 
due  to  the  action  of  the  forces  of 
nature.  This  increase  is  called 
accessio.  The  word  is  also  ex- 
tended by  commentators  to  indi- 
cate the  mode  by  which  title  to  the 
actual  increase  is  acquired.  Own- 
ers of  land  acquire  by  Accession 
all  increase  by  alluvial  soil ;  or  by 
avulsio  ('  sudden  increase '),  if  suffi- 
cient time  has  elapsed  (si  longiore 
tempore  fundo  meo  haeserit  arbo- 
resque radices  egerint)  ;  by  forma- 
tion of  an  insula  in  flumine ;  by 
change  of  river  bed  (alveus  relic- 
tus) ;  by  building  on  another's 
soil  (inaedificatio) ;  by  planting 
and  sowing  (  plant  atio,  satto). 
'  Superficies  solo  cedit."1 


5.  vis  fluminis  partem  aliquam 
detraxerit :  such  sudden  removal 
of  a  considerable  portion  of  soil  the 
commentators  call  avulsio.  The 
former  owner  retained  ownership 
in  this  mass  because  the  increase 
in  the  soil  of  another  was  percepti- 
ble and  might  be  recoverable  by 
detachment  (hence  not  alhivio). 
The  exception  to  this  was  noticed 
above. 

10.  Insula  quae  in  mari  nascitur  : 
since  the  sea,  seashore,  and  bed 
of  the  sea  were  res  communes  and 
could  not  become  the  property  of 
any  individual  person,  an  island 
formed  in  the  sea  was  looked  upon 
as  part  of  the  bed  of  the  sea  risen 
to  the  surface,  and  it  was,  therefore, 
treated  as  a  res  nullius,  subject  to 
occripatio  by  discovery  and  first 
seizure.  An  island  formed  in  a  river 
(/;/  flumine  natd)  was  treated  dif- 
ferently for  the  reason  that  riparian 
owners  had  a  qualified  ownership 
in  the  bed  of  the  river,  though  its 


;6o. 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


esse  creditur.  In  flumine  nata  (quod  frequenter  accidit), 
si  quidem  mediam  partem  fluminis  tenet,  communis  est 
eorum,  qui  ab  utraque  parte  fluminis  prope  ripam  praedia 
possident,  pro  modo  latitudinis  cuiusque  praedii,  quae  lati- 
5  tudo  prope  ripam  sit.  Quod  si  alteri  parti  proximior  sit, 
eorum  est  tantum,  qui  ab  ea  parte  prope  ripam  praedia 
possident.  Quod  si  uno  latere  perruperit  flumen  et  alia 
parte  novo  rivo  fluere  coeperit,  deinde  infra  novus  iste 
rivus  in  veterem  se  converterit,  ager,  qui  a  duobus  rivis 
10  comprehensus  in  formam  insulae  redactus  est,  eius  est 
scilicet,  cuius  et  fuit.  Quod  si  toto  naturali  alveo  relicto 


waters  were  subject  to  the  uses  of 
the  public.  Whatever  part  ceased 
to  serve  the  public  as  a  stream  be- 
came subject  to  the  rights  of  the 
riparian  owners. 

4.  pro  modo  latitudinis  cuiusque 
praedii :  if  the  boundary  lines  of 
land  lying  on  either  side  of  the 
stream   intersected   the   banks   at 
vary  ing  angles,  each  riparian  owner 
would  acquire  as  much  of  the  island 
as  was  included  between  his  boun- 
dary lines  (pro  modo  latitudinis) 
projected    perpendicularly   to    the 
stream  until  they  intersected  the 
line  dividing  the  island  longitudi- 
nally, i.e.  if  the  island  stood  in  the 
middle  of  the  stream,  otherwise  to 
the  line  marking  the  center  of  the 
stream. 

5.  proximior :  this  form  occurs 
occasionally  in  late  Latin  and  shows 
the  linguistic  tendency  to  double 
comparison.    It  contains  the  super- 
lative suffix,  -;//<?-,  and  the  compara- 
tive suffix,  -ios-  (tor).     Proximns 


first  appears  in  legal  Latin  in  the 
Twelve  Tables,  adgnatiis proximns 
(Tab.  5)  meaning  the  agnate  stand- 
ing nearest  in  collateral  relation- 
ship to  any  given  person  (cf. 
below,  note  on  ad  consangnineos, 
p.  285).  Proximus  alone  then  be- 
came frequent  in  the  sense  of  the 
nearest  collateral  kindred  (in  the 
agnatic  family).  It  was  thus  re- 
garded as  a  positive.  Proximior 
came  therefore  to  mean  the  ;  nearer 
proximus.'  Proximns  was  also 
used  in  the  sense  of  '  neighbor,1 
and  proximior  may  have  meant 
the  'nearer' neighbor.  Kalb.  Jn- 
ristlatein,  p.  56  (cf.  double  compar- 
ison in  English,  nearer,  nearest). 

9.  ager,  qui  a  duobus  rivis  com- 
prehensus :  when  a  piece  of  land 
is  converted  into  an  island  by  a 
new  branch  of  a  stream  merely,  the 
ownership  of  the  property  is  not 
affected,  just  as  inundated  land 
suffers  no  change  of  ownership 
(tnundatio). 


170 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 

flumen  alias  fluere  coeperit,  prior  quidem  alveus  eorum  est, 
qui  prope  ripam  praedia  possident,  pro  modo  scilicet  lati- 
tudinis  cuiusque  praedii,  quae  latitudo  prope  ripam  sit; 
novus  autem  alveus  eius  iuris  esse  incipit,  cuius  et  ipsum 

5  flumen,  id  est  publicus  iuris  gentium.  Quod  si  post  aliquod 
temporis  ad  priorem  alveum  reversum  fuerit  et  flumen, 
rursus  novus  alveus  eorum  esse  incipit,  qui  prope  ripam 
eius  praedia  possident.  Cuius  tamen  totum  agrum  novus 
alveus  occupaverit,  licet  ad  priorem  alveum  reversum  fuerit 

10  flumen,  non  tamen  is,  cuius  is  ager  fuerat,  stricta  ratione 
quicquam  in  eo  alveo  habere  potest,  quia  et  ille  ager  qui 
fuerat  desiit  esse  amissa  propria  forma  et,  quia  vicinum 
praedium  nullum  habet,  non  potest  ratione  vicinitatis  ullam 
partem  in  eo  alveo  habere,  sed  vix  est,  ut  id  obtineat. 

15  Aliud  sane  est,  si  cuius  ager  totus  inundatus  fuerit ;  namque 
inundatio  speciem  fundi  non  mutat  et  ob  id,  cum  recesserit 
aqua,  palam  est  eiusdem  esse,  cuius  et  fuit.  Cum  quis  ex 
aliena  materia  speciem  aliquam  suo  nomine  fecerit,  Nerva 

17.    Cum  quis  ex  aliena  materia  sition  is  now  called   Specification 

speciem  fecerit:    in  the  cases  of  (from  the  Roman  speciem  facere) . 

acquisition  just  considered,  owner-  The  rules  governing  ownership  in 

ship  was  acquired  because  some-  cases  of  Specification  were  :  a  thing 

thing  became  connected  with  one's  made    partly   of    one's    own    and 

property  in  such  a  way  that   the  partly  of  another's  materials  is  the 

accessory  thing  acceded  to  the  prin-  property  of  the  workman  (producer 

cipal  thing  (•  res  accessories  cedit  of  the  new  thing)  ;  when  the  new 

ret  prtnctpali"1).     The   text   now  species  has  been  made  wholly  of 

considers   cases    in  which   things  another's  materials   there   is   this 

are  transformed  into  a  new  product  distinction  (according  to  the  media 

or  a  new  species  is  manufactured  sententia  of  the  text)  :  (a)  if  the 

(species  facto).    He  who  performs  new  product  can  be  restored  to  its 

the   work   which    transforms    the  former  condition,  the  owner  of  the 

property   of  another   into  a   new  materials   becomes   the  owner  of 

product   becomes    in   general   the  the  product ;   (ft)  if  it  cannot  be 

owner  of  it.     This  mode  of  acqui-  so  restored,  the  product  becomes 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

et  Proculus  putant  hunc  dominum  esse  qui  fecerit,  quia 
quod  factum  est,  antea  nullius  fuerat.  Sabinus  et  C.assius 
magis  naturalem  rationem  efficere  putant,  ut  qui  materiae 
dominus  fuerit,  idem  eius  quoque,  quod  ex  eadem  materia 
5  factum  sit,  dominus  esset,  quia  sine  materia  nulla  species 
effici  possit :  veluti  si  ex  auro  vel  argento  vel  aere  vas 
aliquod  fecero,  vel  ex  tabulis  tuis  navem  aut  armarium  aut 
subsellia  fecero,  vel  ex  lana  tua  vestimentum,  vel  ex  vino 
et  melle  tuo  mulsum,  vel  ex  medicamentis  tuis  emplastrum 

10  aut  collyrium,  vel  ex  uvis  aut  olivis  aut  spicis  tuis  vinum 
vel  oleum  vel  frumentum.  Est  tamen  etiam  media  sen- 
tentia  recte  existimantium,  si  species  ad  materiam  reverti 
possit,  verius  esse,  quod  et  Sabinus  et  Cassius  senserunt, 
si  non  possit  reverti,  verius  esse,  quod  Nervae  et  Proculo 

15  placuit,  ut  ecce  vas  conflatum  ad  rudem  massam  auri  vel 
argenti  vel  aeris  reverti  potest,  vinum  vero  vel  oleum  vel 
frumentum  ad  uvas  et  olivas  et  spicas  reverti  non  potest ; 
ac  ne  mulsum  quidem  ad  mel  et  vinum  vel  emplastrum  aut 
collyria  ad  medicamenta  reverti  possunt.  Videntur  tamen 

20  mihi  recte  quidam  dixisse  non  debere  dubitari,  quin  alienis 
spicis  excussum  frumentum  eius  sit,  cuius  et  spicae  f uerunt ; 
cum  enim  grana,  quae  spicis  continentur,  perfectam  habeant 
suam  speciem,  qui  excussit  spicas,  non  novam  speciem 

the  property  of  the  maker.     In  vailed  between  the  Proculian  and 

each    case    proper    compensation  Sabinian  schools  regarding  Specifi- 

must  be  made  for  the  workman-  cation  was  determined  by  Justinian 

ship   or    the  value   of   the  mate-  as  stated  above,  following  the  •  tne- 

rials  respectively.     The  workman  dia  sententia  '  referred  to  by  Gaius 

acting  bona  fide  must  be  paid  for  in  the  text. 

his   labor;    acting  mala  fide,  he  23.   non  novam  speciem  facit :  in 

must  make  full  compensation  for  other  words,  the  change  wrought 

damages  to  the  owner  of  the  ma-  must  be  one  of  genuine  manufac- 

terials.      The  dispute  which  pre-  ture  of  a  new  product.     Hence  the 

172 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


facit,  sed  earn  quae  est  detegit.  Voluntas  duorum  domi- 
norum  miscentium  materias  commune  totum  corpus  efficit, 
sive  eiusdem  generis  sint  materiae,  veluti  vina  miscuerunt 
vel  argentum  conflaverunt,  sive  diversae,  veluti  si  alius 

5  vinum  contulerit,  alius  mel,  vel  alius  aurum,  alius  argentum ; 
quamvis  et  mulsi  et  electri  novi  corporis  sit  species.  Sed 
et  si  sine  voluntate  dominorum  casu  confusae  sint  duorum 
materiae  vel  eiusdem  generis  vel  diversae,  idem  iuris  est. 
Cum  in  suo  loco  aliquis  aliena  materia  aedificaverit,  ipse 

10  dominus  intellegitur  aedificii,  quia  omne  quod  inaedificatur 
solo  cedit.  Nee  tamen  ideo  is  qui  materiae  dominus  fuit 
desiit  eius  dominus  esse,  sed  tantisper  neque  vindicare 
earn  potest  neque  ad  exhibendum  de  ea  agere  propter  legem 


mere  threshing  of  another's  grain 
or  dyeing  of  wool  was  insufficient 
to  give  right  of  property  to  the 
one  performing  the  labor. 

2.  miscentium  materias  commune 
totum  corpus :  things  so  joined 
together  that  they  may  be  sepa- 
rated, as  the  mingling  of  flocks 
or  the  union  of  silver,  belonging 
to  different  persons  (commixtio), 
produce  no  change  of -ownership 
so  long  as  the  resulting  union  may 
be  taken  apart,  or  may  be  chemic- 
ally separated.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, the  result  of  mingling  things 
belonging  to  different  owners  pro- 
duces an  inseparable  union,  as  the 
mingling  of  wine  and  wine  (confu- 
sio).  Here  a  co-ownership  (con- 
dominium, communid)  is  produced, 
each  original  owner  losing  owner- 
ship of  his  part  and  becoming 
joint  owner  of  the  whole. 


12.  neque  vindicare  earn  potest : 
the  owner  of  the  materials  used  in 
erecting  a  building  or  in  cultivating 
a  vineyard  on  the  land  of  another 
continued  to  be  their  owner,  con- 
forming to  the  rule  governing  other 
separable  unions,  but  for  public 
policy  (tie  quis  tignum  alienum 
aedibus  suis  iunctum  eximere  coga- 
tur)  the  Twelve  Tables  denied 
him  the  right  to  bring  a  real  action 
for  his  materials  (ret  vindicatio), 
or  an  action  for  their  production  in 
court  (ad  exhibenduni),  where  the 
conversion  had  been  made  bona 
fide  (quod  providenter  lex  efficit, 
tie  vel  aedificia  sub  hoc  praetextu 
diruantur  vel  vinearum  cultura 
lurbetur,  D.  47,  3,  i).  The  owner 
could  not  recover  his  property,  but 
he  could  bring  an  action  for  double 
the  value  of  the  materials  used 
(actio  de  tigno  iuncto  aedibus  vine- 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

duodecim  tabularum,  qua  cavetur,  ne  quis  tignum  alienum 
aedibus  suis  iunctum  eximere  cogatur,  sed  duplum  pro  eo 
praestet.  Appellatione  autem  tigni  omnes  materiae  signifi- 
cantur,  ex  quibus  aedificia  fiunt.  Ergo  si  aliqua  ex  causa 
5  dirutum  sit  aedificium,  poterit  materiae  dominus  nunc  earn 
vindicare  et  ad  exhibendum  agere.  Illud  recte  quaeritur, 
an,  si  id  aedificium  vendiderit  is  qui  aedificaverit  et  ab 
emptore  longo  tempore  captum  postea  dirutum  sit,  adhuc 
dominus  materiae  vindicationem  eius  habeat.  Causa  dubi- 

10  tationis  est,  an  eo  ipso,  quo  universitas  aedificii  longo  tem- 
pore capta  est,  singulae  quoque  res,  ex  quibus  constabat,  cap- 
tae  essent,  quod  non  placuit.  Ex  diverse  si  quis  in  alieno 
solo  sua  materia  aedificaverit,  illius  fit  aedificium,  cuius  et 
solum  est  et,  si  scit  alienum  solum  esse,  sua  voluntate 

15  amississe  proprietatem  materiae  intellegitur ;  itaque  neque 
diruto  quidem  aedificio  vindicatio  eius  materiae  competit. 
Certe  si  dominus  soli  petat  aedificium  nee  solvat  pretium 
materiae  et  mercedes  fabrorum,  poterit  per  exceptionem 
doli  mali  repelli,  utique  si  nescit  qui  aedificavit  alienum 

20  esse  solum  et  tamquam  in  suo  bona  fide  aedificavit ;  nam 
si  scit,  culpa  ei  obici  potest,  quod  temere  aedificavit  in  eo 

eave).     If  the  building  should  be  scriptive   "periods,    see    Vsucapio, 

demolished,  the  owner  of  the  mate-  p.  184  below  and  notes, 
rials  had  an  action,  either  rei  vin-  10.    eo  ipso,  quo  universitas  :  for 

dicatio  or  rent  ad  exhibendum,  for  quo   read   quod  (Mommsen),  the 

their  recovery,   granting   that   he  clause  being  explanatory  of  eo  ipso. 

had  not  already  availed  himself  of  It  was  held   that  acquisition  per 

the  actio  de  tigno  hmcto.  u>iiversitatem  by  prescriptive  title 

8.   longo  tempore  captum:  i.e.  did  not  carry  with  it  the  ownership 

rent    or   dominium    usu   captum.  of  individual  things  of  which  the 

From  these  phrases,  especially  nsit-  entirety  was  composed.      Univer- 

capere,  capere  alone  came  to  have  sitas  (modern  universitas  rerum) 

the  meaning.  '  acquire  by  prescrip-  means   several    individual    things 

tion,1  often  as  here.     For  the  pre-  (res  singulae')  which,  when  taken 

174 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

solo,  quod  intellegeret  alienum.  Si  alienam  plantam  in 
meo  solo  posuero,  mea  erit :  ex  diverse  si  meam  plantam  in 
alieno  solo  posuero,  illius  erit,  si  modo  utroque  casu  radices 
egerit.  Antequam  enim  radices  ageret,  illius  permanet, 
5  cuius  et  fuit.  His  conveniens  est,  quod,  si  vicini  arborem 
ita  terra  presserim,  ut  in  meum  fundum  radices  egerit, 
meam  effici  arborem  ;  rationem  enim  non  permittere  ut 
alterius  arbor  intellegatur,  quam  cuius  fundo  radices 
egisset.  Et  ideo  prope  confinium  arbor  posita,  si  etiam 

10  in  vicinum  fundum  radices  egerit,  communis  est.  Qua 
ratione  autem  plantae  quae  terra  coalescunt  solo  cedunt, 
eadem  ratione  frumenta  quoque  quae  sata  sunt  solo  cedere 
intelleguntur.  Ceterum  sicut  is,  qui  in  alieno  solo  aedifi- 
cavit,  si  ab  eo  dominus  soli  petat  aedificium,  defendi  potest 

15  per  exceptionem  doli  mali,  ita  eiusdem  exceptionis  auxilio 
tutus  esse  poterit,  qui  in  alienum  fundum  sua  impensa 
consevit.  Litterae  quoque  licet  aureae  sint,  perinde  chartis 
membranisque  cedunt,  ac  solo  cedere  solent  ea  quae  aedifi- 
cantur  aut  seruntur.  Ideoque  si  in  chartis  membranisve 

20  tuis  carmen  vel  historian!  vel  orationem  scripsero,  huius 

together,  in  the   eye   of  the   law  omnia   sollemniter  acta    (cf.  also 

form    a    whole    (e-g-    wiiversitas  Kalb,  Roins  Juristen,  p.  31). 
aediuni).  14.    defendi  potest  per  exceptio- 

5 .    His    conveniens     est,    quod  nem  doli  mali :  an  except io  doli  mali 

meam  effici  arborem :  there  seems  to  was  a  plea  or  defense  setup  by  the 

be  authority  in  legal  Latin  for  this  defendant  alleging   fraud  on   the 

construction  of  quod  with  the  infin.  part  of  the  plaintiif,  and  intended 

and  subject  accus.,  a  construction  as  an  offset  to  the  latter's  claim, 

cited  by  Schmalz,  Mliller's  Hand-  An  actio  in  rem  (for  the  ownership 

buck,   II2,    p.    499,   from   Cyprian  of  the  building)  was  therefore  met 

(died  258  A.D.).     It  is   also   em-  by  a  claim   for  compensation   in 

ployed  by  Ulpian  (died  228  A. D.),  the  nature  of  an  exceptio  to  the 

D.  45,  i,  30,  sciendum  est,  quod  si  demand  of  the  plaintiff. 
quis  se  scripseritfideiussisse,  videri  20.  huius  corporis  non  ego  sed  tu 

175 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 


corporis  non  ego,  sed  tu  dominus  esse  intellegeris.  Sed  si 
a  me  petas  tuos  libros  tuasve  membranas  nee  impensas 
scripturae  solvere  velis,  potero  me  defendere  per  excep- 
tionem  doli  mali,  utique  si  bona  fide  eorum  possessionem 

5  nanctus  sim.  Sed  non  uti  litterae  chartis  membranisve 
cedunt,  ita  solent  picturae  tabulis  cedere,  sed  ex  diverso 
placuit  tabulas  picturae  cedere.  Vtique  tamen  conveniens 
est  domino  tabularum  adversus  eum  qui  pinxerit,  si  is 
tabulas  possidebat,  utilem  actionem  dari,  qua  ita  efficaciter 

10  experiri  poterit,  si  picturae  impensam  exsolvat ;    alioquin 


dominus :  according  to  the  text, 
writing  accedes  to  the  paper  on 
the  principle  that  the  writing  can- 
not exist  without  the  paper  (iie- 
cessarie  ei  ret  cedit,  quod  sine  ilia 
esse  'non  pot  est,  see  below),  and 
that  the  result  is  still  fundamen- 
tally paper.  In  case  of  painting, 
however,  the  substance  forming 
the  basis  of  the  paint  accedes  to 
the  painting  (specificatio).  On 
this  point  the  sources  differ.  The 
proper  distinction  is  well  stated 
by  Sohm.  When  the  result  of 
the  painting  is  simply  a  painted 
surface,  as  a  canvas,  the  canvas 
still  existing  as  the  principal  thing, 
the  result  is  a  case  of  Acces- 
sion (e.g.  a  drop  curtain  or  mere 
daub)  ;  the  owner  of  the  canvas 
remains  owner  of  the  painted  thing 
(cf.  text  below,  p.  177,  Paul.  D. 
6,  i,  23,  2).  When  the  result 
of  the  painting  is  a  work  of  art, 
a  new  thing  has  been  created 
which  is  neither  mere  paint  nor 
canvas, — the  materials  losing  their 


identity  in  a  new  creation,  —  the 
case  is  then  one  of  Specification. 
The  new  product  is  the  property 
of  the  artist.  The  same  difference 
exists  in  the  case  of  writing  — 
mere  paper  containing  writing  is 
a  case  of  Accession ;  if  the  writ- 
ing is  a  literary  performance,  it  is 
Specification.  Ownership  in  each 
case  follows  the  regular  rule,  ac- 
cording to  the  economic  changes 
in  the  condition  of  the  thing 
under  consideration.  Cf.  Sohm, 
Institutionen,  8th  ed.,  p.  319,  or 
Eng.  trans.  (1892)  p.  248. 

9.  utilem  actionem  dari :  the 
owner  of  the  tablet  on  which  the 
painting  was  executed  was  treated 
as  if  he  were  the  owner  of  the 
finished  work,  because  he  was 
allowed  to  assert  that  he  was  the 
owner  when  the  painting  was  in 
the  painter's  possession,  and  the 
Praetor  granted  him  an  equitable 
action  (actio  ntHis)  by  which  he 
could  sue  fictitiously  as  if  he  were 
owner.  The  painter  had  an  actio 


176 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN  LAW 

nocebit  ei  doli  mali  exceptio,  utique  si  bona  fide  possessor 
fuerit  qui  solvent.  Adversus  dominum  vero  tabularum  ei 
qui  pinxerit  rectam  yindicationem  competere  dicimus,  ut 
tamen  pretium  tabularum  inferat,  alioquin  nocebit  ei  doli 
5  mali  exceptio. 

Paul.  D.  Si  quis  rei  suae  alienam  rem  ita  adiecerit,  ut 

6,  i,  23,  2  pars  ems  fieret,  veluti  si  quis  statuae  suae  brac- 
chium  aut  pedem  alienum  adiecerit,  aut  scypho  ansam  vel 
fundum,  vel  candelabro  sigillum,  aut  mensae  pedem,  domi- 

10  num  eius  totius  rei  effici  vereque  statuam  suam  dicturum 
et  scyphum  plerique  recte  dicunt  Sed  et  id,  quod  in 
charta  mea  scribitur  aut  in  tabula  pingitur,  statim  meum 
fit,  licet  de  pictura  quidam  contra  senserint  propter  pretium 
picturae ;  sed  necesse  est  ei  rei  cedi,  quod  sine  ilia  esse 

15  non  potest.  In  omnibus  igitur  istis,  in  quibus  mea  res  per 
praevalentiam  alienam  rem  trahit  meamque  efficit,  si  earn 
rem  vindicem,  per  exceptionem  doli  mali  cogar  pretium 
eius  quod  accesserit  dare.  Item  quaecumque  aliis  iuncta 
sive  adiecta  accessionis  loco  cedunt,  ea  quamdiu  cohaerent 

20  dominus  vindicare  non  potest,  sed  ad  exhibendum  agere 

directa,  since  he  had  become  by  pal  verb,  is  omitted  in  legal  Latin 

his  work  legally  owner.     Except  as  in  the  comic  writers  (cf.  Plau- 

for  the  actio  ntilis,  the  owner  of  tus,  Ca.pt.  256;  Trin.  956;  Men. 

the  tablet   could  merely  bring  a  539)-     Eum  and  eos  are  frequently 

personal  action  against  the  painter  omitted,  se  less  often, 
for   the   value    of   the    materials  14.   sed  necesse  est  ei  rei  cedi : 

used.      The    painter    had   a   real  Mommsen  proposes  the  reading: 

right  to  the  property  (vindicatio  necessarie  eirei  cedit,  quod,  etc. 
recta),  having  acquired  title  to  it  19.   accessionis  loco  cedunt :  ac- 

by  specificatio.  cessio  means  here  that  the  union 

10.   dicturum  (esse):  the  subject  is  a  separable  one.     The  actio  ad 

is   eum,   referring    to  quis.     The  exhibendum  is  for  the  separation, 

subject  of  the  infin.,  even    when  the  rei  •vindicatio^  for  the  transfer, 

different  from  that  of  the  princi-  of  the  property. 

ROMAN    LAW  —  12  177 


SELECTED   TEXTS  FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


potest,  ut  separentur  et  tune  vindicentur  ;  scilicet  excepto 
eo,  quod  Cassius  de  ferruminatione  scribit.  Dicit  enim,  si 
statuae  suae  ferruminatione  iunctum  bracchium  sit,  unitate 
maioris  partis  consumi  et  quod  semel  alienum  factum  sit, 
5  etiamsi  inde  abruptum  sit,  redire  ad  priorem  dominum  non 
posse.  Non  idem  in  eo  quod  adplumbatum  sit,  quia  fer- 
ruminatio  per  eandem  materiam  facit  confusionem,  plum- 
batura  non  idem  efficit.  Ideoque  in  omnibus  his  casibus, 
in  quibus  neque  ad  exhibendum  neque  in  rem  locum  habet, 
10  in  factum  actio  necessaria  est.  At  in  his  corporibus,  quae 
ex  distantibus  corporibus  essent,  constat  singulas  partes 
retinere  suam  propriam  speciem,  ut  singuli  homines, 
singulae  oves ;  ideoque  posse  me  gregem  vindicare,  quam- 


6.  quia  f  erruminatio  per  eandem 
materiam  facit :  the  distinction 
between  plumbatura  and  f  erru- 
minatio is  :  the  former  is  the  mere 
soldering  together  of  two  metals 
with  a  third,  in  such  a  way  that 
they  do  not  lose  their  identity  and 
may  be  afterward  separated.  No 
new  product  results  from  this 
union.  Neither  of  the  two  metals 
consumes  the  other.  Hence  there 
is  no  change  of  property,  and  after 
an  actio  ad  exhibendum,  either  of 
the  component  parts  may  be  the 
object  of  a  rei  -vindicatio.  Ferru- 
minatio,  on  the  contrary,  is  the 
union  of  one  thing  with  another 
in  such  a  way  that  the  accessory 
becomes  consumed  by  the  princi- 
pal thing  —  the  accessory  loses  its 
identity,  and  the  result  of  the  union 
is  a  finished  product,  as  an  arm 
affixed  to  a  statue ;  the  result  is  a 


statue  —  the  arm  was  not  a  statue. 
Hence  the  thing  so  consumed  may 
not  be  claimed  by  vindicatio,  nor 
is  it  subject  to  an  exhibendum, 
since  ownership  in  it  has  changed. 
10.  At  in  his  corporibus,  quae  ex 
distantibus  :  D.  41,  3,  30,  tria  au- 
t  em  genera  sunt  cor  porn  in,  nun  in, 
quod  continetur  uno  spiritu  et 
Graece  ^vw/Aevov  (i.e.  continuum) 
•vocatur,  ut  homo,  tignum,  lapis  et 
similia  ;  alterum,  quod  ex  contin- 
gentibus,  hoc  est  pluribus  inter  se 
cohaerentibus  constat,  quod  a-vvif 
/A/xevov  (i.e.  coiiiitnctn/ti)  t'ocatttr, 
ut  aedificium,  navis,  armariutn ; 
tertium,  quod  ex  distantibus  con- 
stat, ?//  corpora  plura  non  soluta, 
sed  uni  notnini  subiecta,  veluti 
populus,  legio,  grex.  The  distinc- 
tion is  between  corpora  distantia, 
those  things  which  unite  to  form 
an  entirety  (inn 'versitas),  of  which 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

vis  aries  tuus  sit  immixtus,  sed  et  te  arietem  vindicare 
posse.  Quod  non  idem  in  cohaerentibus  corporibus 
eveniret :  nam  si  statuae  meae  bracchium  alienae  statuae 
addideris,  non  posse  dici  bracchium  tuum  esse,  quia  tota 
5  statua  uno  spiritu  continetur.  Tignum  alienum  aedibus 
iunctum  nee  vindicari  potest  propter  legem  duodecim  tabu- 
larum,  nee  eo  nomine  ad  exhibendum  agi  nisi  adversus 
eum,  qui  sciens  alienum  iunxit  aedibus ;  sed  est  actio 
antiqua  de  tigno  iuncto,  quae  in  duplum  ex  lege  duodecim 

10  tabularum  descendit.  Item  si  quis  ex  alienis  cementis  in 
solo  suo  aedificaverit,  domum  quidem  vindicare  poterit, 
cementa  autem  resoluta  prior  dominus  vindicabit,  etiamsi 
post  tempus  usucapionis  dissolutum  sit  aedincium,  post- 
quam  a  bonae  fidei  emptore  possessum  sit ;  nee  enim  sin- 

15  gula  cementa  usucapiuntur,  si  domus  per  temporis  spatium 
nostra  fiat. 

TREASURE-TROVE 

Paul.  D.  Thensaurus  est  vetus  quaedam  depositio  pecu- 

41,  i,  31,  i       niae,  cuius  non  exstat  memoria,  ut  iam  dominum 

the  individual  things   (res  singu-  was  ten  years  where  both  parties 

lae)    remain  intact,   and   corpora  interested  lived  in  the  same  prov- 

cohaerentia,  where  the  component  ince  (inter  praesentes),  and  twenty 

parts   are    lost    in    the    resulting  years  where  they  lived  in  different 

corpus.  provinces   (inter  absent fs).     Al- 

10.  ex  alienis  cementis:  the  spell-  though  a  house  had  been  acquired 

mg  cement  11  miorcaementum(caed-  by   this   title,   the    owner  of  the 

mentum,  '  quarried  stone ')  of  the  materials  (cementa)  was  not  pre- 

Florentine  Ms.  is  not  given  in  Har-  vented  from  suing  for  them  if  the 

per's  Lat.  Diet.     See  caementum.  house  were  demolished,  even  after 

13.   post   tempus    usucapionis:  the  prescriptive  period  had  elapsed 

according  to  the  classical  law,  the  (post  tempus  usucapionis). 
prescriptive  period  necessary   for  17.     Thensaurus:     thensaurus, 

acquisition  of  immovable  property  the  Latinized  form  of  the  Greek, 

179 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 


Inst.  2,  i,  39 


non  habeat ;  sic  enim  fit  eius  qui  invenerit,  quod  non  alte- 
rius  sit.  Alioquin  si  quis  aliquid  vel  lucri  causa  vel  metus 
vel  custodiae  condiderit  sub  terra,  non  est  thensaurus ; 
cuius  etiam  furtum  fit. 

Thesauros,  quos  quis  in  suo  loco  invenerit, 
divus  Hadrianus  naturalem  aequitatem  secutus 
ei  concessit  qui  invenerit.  Idemque  statuit,  si  quis  in  sacro 
aut  in  religiose  loco  fortuito  casu  invenerit.  At  si  quis  in 
alieno  loco  non  data  ad  hoc  opera,  sed  fortuitu  invenerit, 
10  dimidium  domino  soli  concessit.  Et  convenienter,  si  quis 
in  Caesaris  loco  invenerit,  dimidium  inventoris,  dimidium 
Caesaris  esse  statuit.  Cui  conveniens  est,  ut,  si  quis  in 
publico  loco  vel  fiscali  invenerit,  dimidium  ip&ius  esse, 
dimidium  fisci  vel  civitatis. 


077<ravp6s  (cf.  Plautus,  Trin.  Prol. 
1 8),  occurs  in  the  Corpus  luris 
both  in  the  nasalized  form,  and  in 
the  later,  thesaurus.  There  is  a 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  title 
by  which  property  in  a  treasure- 
trove  (thesaurus)  is  acquired 
(occupatio  or  accessio).  The  re- 
quirements stated  in  the  definition 
necessary  to  constitute  a  thing 
a  thesaurus  should  be  carefully 
heeded.  It  must  be  a  vetus  de- 
positio  pecuniae  (i.e.  condita  ab 
ignotis  dominis  tempore  -vetustiore 
mobilia,  C.  10,  15),  so  long  hidden 
that  at  the  time  of  its  discovery 
the  owner  can  no  longer  be  ascer- 
tained. It  is  for  this  reason  that 
the  treasure  is  regarded  by  many 
as  a  res  nullius,  and  that  the  finder 
acquires  it  by  right  of  discovery 


(occupatio).  Hence  thesaurus 
differs  from  other  finding  where 
the  owner  may  be  ascertainable. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  that 
the  owner  of  land  had  a  qualified 
interest  in  treasure  found  on  his 
premises,  hence  the  rule  ascribed 
to  Hadrian,  that  the  finder  and 
the  owner  of  the  soil  share  the 
treasure  equally.  If  the  owner 
were  the  finder,  the  treasure  was 
his.  Hadrian  extended  the  rule 
so  that  the  entire  treasure,  if  found 
in  a  place  having  no  owner  (i.e.  in 
a  res  nullius,  e.g.  a  locus  religiosus 
or  sacer)  and  without  search  (for- 
tuito casu),  fell  to  the  finder.  M. 
Aurelius  and  Verus  modified  this 
rule  so  that  one  half  of  such  finds 
fell  to  the  fiscus,  as  in  the  case  of 
treasure  found  on  public  property. 


i  So 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 


Ulp.  19,  3 


ACQUISITION  OF  OWNERSHIP  (lure  Civili} 

Mancipatio  propria  species  alienationis  est 
rerum  mancipi,  eaque  fit  certis  verbis,  libri- 
pende  et  quinque  testibus  praesentibus.  Mancipatio  locum 
habet  inter  cives  Romanes  et  Latinos  colonarios  Latin- 
osque  lunianos  eosque  peregrinos,  quibus  commercium 
datum  est.  Commercium  est  emendi  vendendique  in- 
vicem  ius. 

Est    autem    mancipatio   imaginaria   quaedam 
venditio ;  quod   et   ipsum  ius  proprium  civium 
10  Romanorum  est,  eaque  res  ita  agitur :  adhibitis  non  minus 
quam  quinque  testibus  civibus  Romanis  puberibus  et  prae- 


Gai.  i,  119 


i.  Mancipatio  propria  species 
alienationis:  property  in  cases  of  res 
mancipi  was  not  transferred  unless 
all  the  formalities  required  by  law 
were  observed.  If  any  of  the  par- 
ticulars failed,  the  object  of  the 
transfer  was  held  to  be  merely 
in  possession  (in  bonis)  of  the 
grantee,  until  he  obtained  a  title 
to  the  thing  by  prescription  (usu- 
capio).  Res  nee  mancipi  did  not 
require  these  formalities  and  were 
acquired  by  simple  tradition  or 
delivery  (trad&io).  Plautus  il- 
lustrates this  principle  in  scenes 
where  purchasers  of  slaves  are 
cheated  out  of  their  property  (and 
the  price  paid)  by  an  accomplice 
of  the  seller  setting  up  a  claim  for 
the  slaves  as  his  own  before  the 
purchasers'  possession  has  ripened 
into  ownership.  The  requirements 
of  the  text  represent  the  transac- 


tion as  it  was  in  the  classical  law. 
Originally  mancipium  was  a  real 
sale,  in  which  the  price  was  actually 
weighed  out  by  the  scale  bearer. 
Coined  money  was  in  use  as  early 
as  the  Twelve  Tables.  The  cere- 
mony then  became  symbolical,  in 
which  the  fiction  of  weighing  out 
the  purchase  money  was  preserved. 
The  transaction  thereupon  came 
to  be  open  to  those  Latini  and 
peregrini  who  had  the  ius  com- 
inercii. 

4.  Latinos  lunianos :  see  note 
on  Libertorum,  p.  89. 

1 1 .  quinque  testibus  civibus  Ro- 
manis :  it  was  necessary  that  there 
should  be  present  the  one  acquir- 
ing (qui  mancipio  accipit} ;  the 
one  alienating  (a  quo  mancipio 
accipit')  ;  the  scale  bearer  (libri- 
pens)  ;  and  five  witnesses,  repre- 
senting the  community.  The 


181 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

terea  alio  eiusdem  condicionis,  qui  libram  aeneam  teneat, 
qui  appellatur  libripens,  is,  qui  mancipio  accipit,  aes  tenens 
ita  dicit :  '  Hunc  ego  hominem  ex  iure  Quiritium  meum  esse 
aio  isque  mihi  emptus  esto  hoc  acre  aeneaque  libra,'  deinde 
5  acre  percutit  libram  idque  aes  dat  ei,  a  quo  mancipio  ac- 
cipit, quasi  pretii  loco.  Eo  modo  et  serviles  et  liberae  per-  > 
sonae  mancipantur;  animalia  quoque,  quae  mancipi  sunt, 
quo  in  numero  habentur  boves,  equi,  muli,  asini,  item 
praedia  tarn  urbana  quam  rustica,  quae  et  ipsa  mancipi 

10  sunt,  qualia  sunt  Italica,  eodem  modo  solent  mancipari. 
In  eo  solo  praediorum  mancipatio  a  ceterorum  mancipa- 
tione  differt,  quod  personae  serviles  et  liberae,  item  ani- 
malia, quae  mancipi  sunt,  nisi  in  praesentia  sint,  mancipari 
non  possunt ;  adeo  quidem,  ut  eum,  qui  mancipio  accipit, 

15  adprehendere  id  ipsum,  quod  ei  mancipio  datur,  necesse 
sit ;  unde  etiam  mancipatio  dicitur,  quia  manu  res  capitur ; 
praedia  vero  absentia  solent  mancipari.  Ideo  autem  aes 
et  libra  adhibetur,  quia  olim  aereis  tantum  nummis  ute- 

number  five  is  not  accounted  for  primitive  times,  undoubtedly,  it 

in  the  sources,  but  the  presump-  was  necessary  that  the  entire  cere- 

tion  is  that  there  was  one  witness  mony  should  take  place  on  the 

each  for  the  five  classes  of  the  spot  where  the  thing  sold  was 

Servian  Constitution.  situated,  but  in  later  times  a  field 

2.  qui  mancipio  accipit:  for  a  was  represented  by  a  clod  (glaeba), 

discussion  of  the  syntax  of  man-  a  house  by  a  brick,  etc.  {res  mo- 

cipio  and  the  meaning  of  the  word  biles  non  nisi praesentes  mancipari 

in  these  phrases,  see  Roby,  Lat.  possunt.  et  non  plures  quatn 

Gram.  II,  Pref.  p.  50,  footnote.  quot  manu  capi  possunt.  Immo- 

6.  liberae  personae  mancipan-  biles '  antem  etiam  plures  simul 

tur :  for  free  persons  in  mancipio,  et  quae  diversis  locis  sunt  man- 

see  note  on  aliae,  p.  128.  cipari  possunt,  Ulp.  19,  6).  — 

17.  praedia  absentia  solent  man-  aes  et  libra  adhibetur:  bronze 

cipari:  immovable  things  were  not  (aes)  was  the  only  metal  used  in 

seized  with  the  hand  in  mancipa-  ancient  Roman  currency.  It  was 

tion,  but  were  described  only.  In  a  mixture  of  copper,  tin,  and  lead. 

182 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


bantur,  et  erant  asses,  dupundii,  semisses,  quadrantes,  nee 
ullus  aureus  vel  argenteus  nummus  in  usu  erat,  sicut  ex 
lege  duodecim  tabularum  intellegere  possumus  ;  eorumque 
nummorura  vis  et  potestas  non  in  numero  erat,  sed  in 
5  pondere ;  asses  librales  erant,  et  dupundii ;  unde  etiam 
dupundius  dictus  est,  quasi  duo  pondo,  quod  nomen  adhuc 
in  usu  retinetur.  Semisses  quoque  et  quadrantes  pro  rata 
scilicet  portione  ad  pondus  examinati  erant  Qui  dabat 
olim  pecuniam,  non  numerabat  earn,  sed  appendebat ;  unde 
10  servi,  quibus  permittitur  administratio  pecuniae,  dispensa- 
tores  appellati  sunt 

In  iure  cessio  quoque  communis  alienatio  est 
et  mancipi  rerum  et  nee  mancipi :  quae  fit  per 
tres  personas,  in  iure  cedentis,  vindicantis,  addicentis.     In 


Ulp.  19,  9 


It  is  not  known  when  bronze 
was  first  coined.  At  the  time  of 
the  Twelve  Tables  it  was  used, 
and  some  maintain  that  it  was 
introduced  then ;  by  others  it  is 
held  to  have  been  first  coined  by 
Servius  Tullius.  Silver  currency 
was  introduced  269  B.C.,  and  gold 
not  until  the  later  years  of  the  re- 
public. As  stated  in  the  text,  the 
primitive  Roman  currency  was  one 
of  weight  (in  pondere).  As  the 
unit  of  value  was  the  as,  the  sys- 
tem of  coinage  was  identical  with 
the  system  of  weights.  The  as 
originally  weighed  one  pound 
(libra)  and  was  divided  into 
twelve  ounces  (iinciae).  Each 
fraction  of  the  as  following  this 
duodecimal  system  had  its  dis- 
tinct name:  uncia  (T'5),  sextans 
(£),  qiiadrans  (i),  semissis  (£), 


septunx  (T72) ,  deunx  (10 ,  etc.  Be- 
fore Justinian's  reorganization  of 
the  prescribed  courses  of  study  in 
the  law  schools,  dupondii  (<two- 
pennymen ')  was  the  name  given  in 
derision  to  the  students  of  the  first 
year  (novi lustinianei). 

12.  In  iure  cessio  :  in  iure  cessio 
was  an  ancient  form  of  alienating 
both  res  mancipi  and  res  nee  man- 
cipi. It  was  a  fictitious  process 
followed  by  a  formal  surrender  in 
court  (in  iure).  The  defendant 
(dominus)  gave  up  (cessit)  the 
thing  in  dispute  to  the  plaintiff 
(vindicator)  in  the  presence  of  the 
magistrate.  The  grantor  yields 
either  expressly  or  tacitly,  and  as 
there  is  no  contest  over  the  object 
claimed  (vindicare,  '  to  claim ' ; 
vindicator,  '  the  claimant  or 
grantee1)  the  magistrate,  repre- 


18- 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

iure  cedit  dominus ;  vindicat  is,  cui  ceditur ;  addicit  prae- 
tor. In  iure  cedi  res  etiam  incorporales  possunt,  velut 
ususfructus  et  hereditas  et  tutela  legitima  libertae. 

In  iure  cessio  autem  hoc  modo  fit :  apud  magis- 

Gai.  2,  24  ... 

5  tratum  popuh  Romani,  veluti  praetorem,  is,  cm 

res  in  iure  ceditur,  rein  tenens  ita  dicit :  '  Hunc  ego  hominem 
ex  iure  Quiritium  meum  esse  aio,'  deinde  postquam  hie 
vindicaverit,  praetor  interrogat  eum,  qui  cedit,  an  contra 
vindicet ;  quo  negante  aut  tacente  tune  ei,  qui  vindicaverit, 

10  earn  rem  addicit;  idque  legis  actio  vocatur.  Hoc  fieri 
potest  etiam  in  provinciis  apud  praesides  earum.  Plerum- 
que  tamen  et  fere  semper  mancipationibus  utimur.  Quod 
enim  ipsi  per  nos  praesentibus  amicis  agere  possumus,  hoc 
non  est  necesse  cum  maiore  difficultate  apud  praetorem  aut 

15  apud  praesidem  provinciae  agere. 

VSVCAPIO 

Modest.  D.  Vsucapio  est  adiectio  dominii  per  continua- 
41-  3. 3  tionem  possessionis  temporis  lege  definiti. 

senting  the  community  or  sover-  words :  do,  dico,  addico.     Do  was 

eign  power,  adjudges  the  property  employed  in  granting  actions,  in- 

in  the  thing  to  the  plaintiff.     In  terdicts,    indices,    etc.;     dico,    in 

iure  cessio  was  used  extensively  to  pronouncing  sentence  ;  addico.  in 

effect  manumission  (the  vindex  or  awarding  the  object  in  dispute  to 

assertor  libertatis  acting  as  claim-  one  or  the  other   of  the   parties 

ant)  and  in  the  removal  and  es-  (vacant 'ur  dies  nefasii,  per   quos 

tablishment  of  paternal  rights,  e.g.  dies  nefas   fari  praetorem:   do, 

manumissio  vindicta,  followed  by  dico.  addico,  Varro,  L.  L.  6,  30). 

in  iure  cessio  in  emancipation  and  For  legis  actio  see  note  on  ex  his, 

adoption.     Cf.  also  note  on   Vin-  p.  49. 

dicta,  p.  90.  1 6.  Vsucapio  :  usucapio  was  also 

10.    earn  rem  addicit :  the  prae-  recognized  by  the  ius  civile  as  a 

tor  in  the  full  exercise  of  his  office  mode  of  acquisition    by  original 

made    use    of   the    three    formal  title.       Vsucapio      (iisu  +  capere, 

184 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Gai.  D. 
4i.  3.  i 


Gai.  2,  41 


Bono  publico  usucapio  introducta  est.  ne  scili- 
cet quarundam  rerum  diu  et  fere  semper  incerta 
dominia  essent,  cum  sufficeret  dominis  ad  inquirendas  res 
suas  statuti  temporis  spatium. 

Nam  si  tibi  rem  mancipi  neque  mancipavero 
neque  in  iure  cessero,  sed  tantum  tradidero,  in 
bonis  quidem  tuis  ea  res  efficitur,  ex  iure  Quiritium  vero 
mea  permanebit,  donee  tu  earn  possidendo  usucapias ; 
semel  enim  inpleta  usucapione  proinde  pleno  iure  incipit, 
10  id  est  et  in  bonis  et  ex  iure  Quiritium  tua  res  esse,  ac  si  ea 
mancipata  vel  in  iure  cessa  esset.  Vsucapio  autem  mobilium 
quidem  rerum  anno  completur,  fundi  vero  et  aedium  bien- 
nio ;  et  ita  lege  XII  tabularum  cautum  est. 


'  taking  by  use ')  was  a  possession 
without  interruption  for  one  year 
in  case  of  a  movable  thing  and 
for  two  years  in  case  of  land  or 
buildings,  where  the  property  was 
situated  in  Italy,  if  the  possession 
had  begun  honestly  (bona  fide) 
and  if  the  thing  was  not  excluded 
from  usucapio  by  special  provision 
of  law,  e.g.  res  furti-vae,  res  sacrae, 
etc.  See  below.  The  institution 
of  usucapion  was  demanded  by 
public  policy,  in  order  that  there 
should  be  no  vacuum  of  ownership 
(ne  incerta  dominia  essent)  and 
to  prevent  the  title  to  property 
from  remaining  forever  insecure 
and  uncertain.  This  might  occur 
when  the  form  of  conveyance  had 
been  imperfect  or  when  the  thing 
was  acquired  from  a  non-owner 
who  had  no  right  to  convey  (nemo 
plus  iuris  ad  ahum  transferre 


potest  quam  ipse  haberet,  D.  50, 

17,  54)- 

6.  in  bonis  tuis  ea  res  efficitur : 
the  ius  civile  required  that  a  res 
mancipi  be  conveyed  by  mancipa- 
tio  or  in  iure  cessio.  If  any  of  the 
requirements  of  this  formal  trans- 
action failed,  the  thing  could  not 
become  the  property  of  the  alienee 
by  simple  delivery  (traditio),  but 
was  said  to  be  merely  lin  bonis 
einsj  while  the  alienor  continued 
to  be  the  real  owner.  This  defect 
in  the  form  of  conveyance  could 
be  cured  by  usucapio,  and  full 
ownership  (plena  iure)  could  be 
acquired  by  the  possessor  if  he 
continued  to  possess  for  the  re- 
quired period  of  time.  Vsucapio 
is  an  institution  mentioned  by  the 
Twelve  Tables.  Mancipatio  and 
in  iure  cessio  are  both  older.  (Cf. 
Cic.  Top.  4,  23,  usus  auctoritas 


'85 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 


Inst.  2,  6 


lure  civili  constitutum  fuerat,  ut,  qui  bona 
fide  ab  eo,  qui  dominus  non  erat,  cum  crediderit 
eum  dominum  esse,  rem  emerit  vel  ex  donatione  aliave  qua 
iusta  causa  acceperit,  is  earn  rem,  si  mobilis  erat,  anno  ubi- 

5  que,  si  immobilis,  biennio  tantum  in  Italico  solo  usucapiat, 
ne  rerum  dominia  in  incerto  essent.  Et  cum  hoc  placitum 
erat,  putantibus  antiquioribus  dominis  sufficere  ad  inquiren- 
das  res  suas  praefata  tempora,  nobis  melior  sententia  re- 
sedit,  ne  domini  maturius  suis  rebus  defraudentur  neque 

10  certo  loco  beneficium  hoc  concludatur.  Et  ideo  constitu- 
tionem  super  hoc  promulgavimus,  qua  cautunr  est,  ut  res 
quidem  mobiles  per  triennium  usucapiantur,  immobiles  vero 


fundi  biennium  est  —  ceterarum 
rerum  omnium  annitus  est  usus). 
4.  iusta  causa  acceperit :  in  con- 
sidering the  subject  of  usucapion, 
it  is  necessary  to  understand  that 
possession  (possessio)  means  both 
the  physical  detention  of  a  thing 
(detentio)  —  the  popular  meaning 
of  the  word  —  and  the  intention 
(animus)  to  hold  it  as  one's  own. 
In  the  sense  of  the  ius  civile,  then, 
legal  possession  requires  both  de- 
tentio and  animus.  In  order  that 
such  a  possession  should  ripen 
into  ownership  by  lapse  of  time, 
the  possession  must  have  begun 
bona  fide  and  ex  iusta  causa  (or 
iusto  titnlo),t.e.  the  one  beginning 
the  possession  must  have  begun  in 
good  faith  and  as  a  result  of  one 
of  the  legally  recognized  modes 
of  acquiring  title  to  property,  as 
sale,  gift,  legacy,  etc.  The  pos- 
session must  be  peaceable  and 
uninterrupted,  but  the  term  of  a 


predecessor's  possession  could  be 
added  to  that  of  a  successor  to 
complete  the  required  period  of 
possession  (accessio  possessions). 
10.  certo  loco  beneficium  hoc  con- 
cludatur :  in  the  time  of  Justinian 
there  was  no  distinction  between 
Italian  and  provincial  soil,  and 
hence  the  principle  of  usucapion 
was  not  confined  to  Italy  (Itali- 
cutn  solitni) .  Owing  to  the  greatly 
increased  extent  of  Roman  terri- 
tory and  the  greater  distances  at 
which  property  might  be  situated 
from  its  owner,  the  prescriptive 
periods  were  also  lengthened. 
Inter  praesentes  meant  when  the 
owner  and  the  possessor  resided 
in  the  same  province ;  inter  ab- 
sentes,  in  different  provinces. 
Where  the  parties  were  only  a 
part  of  the  time  in  the  same 
province,  two  years  of  absence 
were  counted  equal  to  one  of 
presence. 


186 


SELECTED   TEXTS    FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


per  longi  temporis  possessionem,  id  est  inter  praesentes 
decennio,  inter  absentes  viginti  annis  usucapiantur  et  his 
modis  non  solum  in  Italia,  sed  in  omni  terra,  quae  nostro 
imperio  gubernatur,  dominium  rerum  iusta  causa  posses- 
S  sionis  praecedente  adquiratur. 

Sed  aliquando  etiamsi  maxime  quis  bona  fide 
alienam  rem  possideat,  rion  tamen  illi  usucapio 
procedit,  velut  si  quis  rem  furtivam  aut  vi  possessam  pos- 
sideat;  nam  furtivam  lex  XII  tabularum  usucapi  prohibet, 
10  vi  possessam  lex  lulia  et  Plautia.  Item  provincialia  praedia 
usucapionem  non  recipiunt.  Item  olim  mulieris,  quae  in 
agnatorum  tutela  erat,  res  mancipi  usucapi  non  poterant, 


Gai.  2,  45 


i .  per  longi  temporis  possessio- 
nem :  usucapio  and  longi  temporis 
possessio,  x)r  praescriptio,  were  by 
origin  entirely  distinct  and  differ- 
ent terms.  The  former  was  an  in- 
stitution of  the  ins  civile,  the  latter 
of  the  ins  honorarium  or  praetorian 
law.  Praescriptio  was  a  term  of 
procedure  introduced  by  provincial 
governors,  since  usucapio  did  not 
apply  to  provincial  soil,  where  there 
could  be  no  ownership  ex  iure 
Quiritiittn.  The  praescriptio  was 
literally  a  plea  written  at  the  be- 
ginning (prae-scribere)  of  the  for- 
mula, setting  forth  the  fact  of  long 
and  continuous  possession  on  the 
part  of  the  defendant.  The  prae- 
tor then  came  to  give  the  possessor 
an  action  against  third  parties,  who 
claimed  the  thing  possessed  (actio 
in  rem),  protecting  the  possessor 
as  owner.  Justinian  united  the 
two  principles  of  usucapio  and 


longi  temporis  possessio,  the  long 
period  of  ten  and  twenty  years 
being  retained  for  real  estate,  and 
the  short  period  of  itsucapio  for 
movable  property  was  extended  to 
three  years. 

7.  non  illi  usucapio  procedit : 
usucapio  can  ripen  into  ownership 
only  when  the  mode  of  acquisition 
is  legal.  It  may  proceed  where  an 
error  of  fact  occurred  in  the  con- 
veyance, if  such  error  of  fact  is 
reasonable  and  bona  fide.  An 
error  of  law,  however,  renders  the 
effect  of  the  possession  void.  Cer- 
tain things  were  not  susceptible  to 
usucapion,  e.g.  things  stolen  (res 
furtivae) ;  things  taken  by  violence 
(res  vi  possessae);  land  in  provin- 
cial soil  (provinciale  solnni)  \  res 
mancipi  belonging  to  a  woman  in 
the  guardianship  of  her  agnates  (cf. 
note  on  Veteres,  p.  152)  ;  all  things 
incapable  of  private  ownership 


187 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 

praeterquam  si  ab  ipsa  tutore  auctore  traditae  essent ;  idque 
ita  lege  XII  tabularum  cautum  erat.  Item  liberos  homines 
et  res  sacras  et  religiosas  usucapi  non  posse  manifestum 
est.  Quod  ergo  vulgo  dicitur  furtivarum  rerum  et  vi  pos- 
5  sessarum  usucapionem  per  legem  XII  tabularum  prohibitam 
esse,  non  eo  pertinet,  ut  ne  ipse  fur  quive  per  vim  possidet 
usucapere  possit  (nam  huic  alia  ratione  usucapio  non  con- 
petit,  quia  scilicet  mala  fide  possidet);  sed  nee  ullus  alius, 
quamquam  ab  eo  bona  fide  emerit,  usucapiendi  ius  habeat. 


SUBORDINATE  RIGHTS  OF  OWNERSHIP  (Jura  in  re  aliena} 
SERVITUDES 


Servitutes   aut  personarum  sunt,  ut  usus  et 
ususfructus,  aut  rerum,  ut  servitutes  rusticorum 
praediorum  et  urbanorum. 


10  Marcian.  D. 
8.1,1 


(extra  commerciunt),  such  as  free 
persons,  res  sacrae,  res  retigiosae, 
res  fisci,  etc. 

8.  nee  ullus  alius  :  a  thing  stolen 
or  taken  by  violence  was  regarded 
as  tainted  (in  vitium  cecidisse)  un- 
til it  fell  again  into  the  hands  of 
the  real  owner.  In  order  that  the 
taint  should  be  removed  (vitio 
pur  goto)  so  that  usucapio  might 
proceed,  the  thing  must  come  into 
the  owner's  hands  lawfully  and 
with  his  knowledge  that  it  had 
been  stolen  and  was  his  property. 

Subordinate  Rights  of  Owner- 
ship :  dominium  was  the  word  em- 
ployed by  the  Romans  to  express 
complete  ownership.  It  embraced, 
therefore,  the  ius  utendi,  ius  frtt- 


endi,  ins  abutendi,  or  rights  of  com- 
plete disposition  of  the  property. 
Dominium  means  that  all  these 
rights  are  united  in  the  dominus. 
But  certain  rights  may  be  detached 
from  dominium  and  vested  in  an- 
other than  the  dominus,  e.g.  a  right 
to  use  a  thing  in  a  particular  way, 
as  a  right  of  way  through  another's 
field.  This  is  dominium^  or  abso- 
lute ownership  minus  a  detached 
portion  of  ownership,  i.e.  a  limited 
right  or  servitude  in  the  property 
of  another.  These  limited  rights 
which  one  properly  entitled  may 
exercise  over  another's  property 
are  called  iura  in  re  or  iura  in  re 
aliena  (cf.  also  note  on  Acquisi- 
tion of  Ownership,  p.  165) .  They 


1 88 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Pompon.  D.  Servitutium  non  ea  natura  est,  ut  aliquid  faciat 
s,  i,  15,  i  quis,  veluti  viridia  tollat  aut  amoeniorem  pro- 
spectum  praestet,  aut  in  hoc  ut  in  suo  pingat,  sed  ut  aliquid 
patiatur  aut  non  faciat. 

5  uip.  D.  Etiam  de  servitute,  quae  oneris  ferendi  causa 

8,  s-  6,  2  imposita  erit,  actio  nobis  competit,  ut  et  onera 
ferat  et  aedificia  reficiat  ad  eum  modum,  qui  servitute  im- 
posita comprehensus  est.  Et  Callus  putat  non  posse  ita 


are  real  rights,  i.e.  availing  against 
all  the  world,  like  the  rights  of 
complete  ownership.  They  are 
detached  portions  of  proprietary 
right  taken  from  the  dominus  and 
conferred  upon  another.  What 
remains  after  the  ins  in  re  has 
been  subtracted,  the  Romans  call 
nuda  proprietors.  How  do  iura 
in  re  aliena  differ  from  absolute 
ownership  ?  They  are  mere '  frag- 
ments1 of  dominium,  limited  in 
their  content,  and  when  they  per- 
ish as  distinct  rights,  are  absorbed 
by  domininm.  The  most  impor- 
tant iura  in  re  aliena  are  servi- 
tutes,  emphyteusis,  superficies,  and 
pignus  (Jiypotheca). 

Servitudes :  a  servitude  is  a 
real  right  (ins  in  re  aliena)  in  the 
property  of  another,  inseparably 
connected  with  an  immovable 
thing  {pratdium)  or  with  a  cer- 
tain person  for  whose  benefit  it 
exists  (servilities  personarum  aut 
rerum,  personal  and  real).  In 
origin  the  term  servitus  is  meta- 
phorical. The  thing  whose  owner- 
ship is  restricted  is  said  to  serve 
(servit,  res  serviens),  the  restricting 


right  or  burden  is  called  servitus. 
The  thing  benefited  by  such  ser- 
vice is  called  dominant  (res  domi- 
nans).  Where  property  was  freed 
from  servitudes,  there  was  said  to 
be  a  libertas  ret. 

3.  aut  in  hoc  ut  in  suo  pingat : 
'  the  essence  of  servitudes  does  not 
consist  in  this,  that  any  one  should 
do  something,  as  e.g.  remove 
bushes  or  furnish  a  more  pleasing 
view,  or  that  he  display  pictures  on 
his  own  property  for  this  purpose ' 
(i.e.  amoeniorem  prospectum  prae- 
stet) .  hi  suo  pingat  refers  to  the 
practice  of  decorating  walls  and 
other  surfaces  with  paintings  and 
frescoes  for  the  purpose  of  beauti- 
fying the  landscape.  This  prac- 
tice is  referred  to  by  Juv.  Sat. 
8,  157.  Cf.  also  Dig.  43,  17, 
3,  9.  Such  '  coverings '  of  paint 
and  fresco  were  called  tectoria.  — 
sed  ut  aliquid  patiatur :  servi- 
tudes are  classified  as  positive  or 
negative.  In  the  latter  case  the 
owner  of  the  res  serviens  is  bound 
to  refrain  from  doing  what  he  would 
otherwise  be  entitled  to  do  (servi- 
tntes  quae  m  non  faciendo  consis- 


189 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

servitutem  imponi,  ut  quis  facere  aliquid  cogeretur,  sed  ne 
me  facere  prohiberet;  nam  in  omnibus  servitutibus  refectio 
ad  eum  pertinet,  qui  sibi  servitutem  adserit,  non  ad  eum, 
cuius  res  servit.  Sed  evaluit  Servi  sententia,  in  proposita 
5  specie  ut  possit  quis  defendere  ius  sibi  esse  cogere  adver- 
sarium  reficere  parietem  ad  onera  sua  sustinenda.  Labeo 
autem  hanc  servitutem  non  hominem  debere,  sed  rem, 
denique  licere  domino  rem  derelinquere  scribit. 

PRAEDIAL    SERVITUDES 

Paul.  D.  Servitutes  praediorum  aliae  in  solo,  aliae  in 

10  8- T- x-  3         superficie  consistunt. 

Praediorum  urbanorum  sunt  servitutes,  quae 

Inst.  2,  3,  i 

aedificns  mhaerent,  ideo  urbanorum  praediorum 

dictae,  quoniam  aedificia  omnia  urbana  praedia  appellan- 

tur,  etsi  in  villa  aedificata  sunt.     Item   praediorum  urba- 

15  norum  servitutes  sunt  hae  :  ut  vicinus  onera  vicini  sustineat ; 

ut  in  parietem  eius  liceat  vicino  tignum  immittere ;  ut  stil- 

tnnf).     In   the    former   case,   the  ing   the   servient   thing    (dereliti- 

owner  of  the  res  dominans  is  al-  quere) . 

lowed  to  do  something  (by  the          9.    Servitutes  praediorum  aliae  : 

positive  servitude)  he  would  other-  praedial  (real)  servitudes  are  either 

wise  not  be  entitled  to  do  (servi-  rural  or  urban,  i.e.    they  pertain 

tutes  quae  in  patiendo  consistunf).  to  the  soil  (aliae  in  solo  consistunt) 

Servitudes  do  not  consist  in  doing  or  to  superstructures  (aliae  in  su- 

something  (servitus  in  faciendo  perficie  consistunt).     All  praedial 

consistere  non  potest).     For  this  servitudes   are    burdens    imposed 

reason  the  cost  of  repairs  and  main-  upon  a  thing  in  favor  of  another 

tenance  fall  upon  the  owner  of  the  thing,  as  a  right  of  way  through 

dominant  tenement,  except  in  the  one  piece  of  land  in  favor  of  another 

servitude  oneris ferendi  mentioned  piece  of  land  adjoining  it  —  or  a 

in  the  text.     Even  here  the  owner  right  to  discharge  rain  water  from 

of  the  servient  tenement  may  avoid  one's  roof  upon  the  property  of  a 

the  burden  of  repairs  by  abandon-  neighbor,  etc. 

190 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


5 


licidium  vel  flumen  recipiat  quis  in  aedes  suas  vel  in  aream, 
vel  non  recipiat ;  et  ne  altius  tollat  quis  aedes  suas,  ne 
luminibus  vicini  officiatur. 

Gai.  D.  Vrbanorum  praediorum  iura  talia  sunt :  altius 

8>  2>  2  tollendi  et  officiendi  luminibus  vicini  aut  non  ex- 

tollendi ;  item  stillicidium  avertendi  in  tectum  vel  aream 
vicini  aut  non  avertendi ;  item  immittendi  tigna  in  parietem 
vicini  et  denique  proiciendi  protegendive  ceteraque  istis 
similia. 

Est  et  haec  servitus,  ne   prospectui   officia- 
tur. 

Luminum  in  servitute  constituta  id  adquisi- 
tum  videtur,  ut  vicinus  lumina  nostra  excipiat; 
cum  autem  servitus  imponitur,  ne  luminibus  officiatur,  hoc 


10  uip.  D. 

8,  2,3 

Paul.  D. 
8,  2,  4 


4.  Vrbanorum  praediorum :  ser- 
vitudes are  called  urban  when  they 
pertain  directly  to  buildings, 
whether  situated  in  town  or  coun- 
try. The  most  usual  urban  servi- 
tudes are  mentioned  in  the  text. 
By  the  servitude  althes  tollendi  the 
owner  of  the  dominant  tenement 
was  entitled  to  erect  buildings  be- 
yond a  certain  height ;  by  the  neg- 
ative servitude  non  extollendi,  the 
owner  of  the  servient  tenement 
was  bound  not  to  raise  his  build- 
ings beyond  a  certain  height. 
The  servitude  officiendi  luminibus 
vel  prospectui  restrained  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  servient  tenement 
from  obstructing  the  light  and  pros- 
pect of  his  neighbor  by  the  erec- 
tion of  buildings  or  the  planting 
of  trees,  etc.  Otherwise  an  owner 
might  erect  structures  on  his  own 


property  to  whatever  height  he 
pleased  (cuitts  est  sol/em,  eius  est 
usqtte  ad  caeluni).  The  servi- 
tude stillicidium  avertendi  aut 
non  avertendi  has  reference  to 
drip  from  the  eaves  (stilla-cadere, 
'  falling  in  drops ' )  falling  upon 
a  neighbor's  property.  When  the 
water  was  collected  and  carried 
from  the  roof  by  a  gutter,  it  was 
called  flumen.  In  neither  case 
could  the  water  be  turned  upon  a 
neighbor's  land,  in  the  absence  of 
a  servitude.  The  ius  tigni  immit- 
tendi is  the  right  to  fasten  a  joist 
or  timber  in  a  neighbor's  wall. 
The  ius  proiciendi  protegendive  is 
the  right  to  build  beyond  one's 
boundary  line  in  the  air  above 
another's  property,  e.g.  a  balcony 
or  the  projection  of  beams,  or  a 
roof,  over  another's  soil  or  building. 


191 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


UIp.  D. 
8,  2,  15 


maxima  adept!  videmur,  ne  ius  sit  vicino  invitis  nobis  altius 
aedificare  atque  ita  minuere  lumina  nostrorum  aedificiorum. 
Inter  servitutes  ne  luminibus  officiatur  et  ne 
prospectui  offendatur  aliud  et  aliud  observatur : 
5  quod  in  prospectu  plus  quis  habet,  ne  quid  ei  officiatur  ad 
gratiorem  prospectum  et  liberum,  in  luminibus  autem,  non 
officere  ne  lumina  cuiusquam  obscuriora  fiant. 
Paul.  D.  Lumen  id  est,  ut  caelum  videretur,  et  interest 

8, 2, 16  inter    lumen    et   prospectum :    nam    prospectus 

10  etiam  ex  inferioribus  locis  est,  lumen  ex  inferiore  loco  esse 
non  potest. 

uip.  D.  Servitutes  rusticorum   praediorum  sunt  hae : 

8-  3. !  iter,  actus,  via,  aquaeductus.     Iter  est  ius  eundi 

ambulandi  homini,  non  etiam  iumentum  agendi.     Actus 


The  serviius  luminum,  or  the  ius 
luminis  immittendi,  is  the  right  to 
have  a  window  in  a  neighbor's 
wall  (lit  vicinns  luinina  nostra  ex- 
cipiat) . 

3.  Inter  servitutes  ne  luminibus 
et  ne  prospectui :  the  difference 
{aliud  et  aliud}  between  these  two 
servitudes  is  that  the  servitus  ne 
prospectui  offendatur  is  more 
extensive  than  the  servitude  ne 
luminibus  officiatur,  since  prospect 
may  be  obstructed  or  rendered  less 
pleasing  in  various  ways,  without 
diminishing  light.  The  servitude 
of  light  is  more  extensive  than  the 
servitude  altius  non  tollendi,  since 
other  things  than  buildings  may 
obstruct  the  light,  e.g.  the  planting 
of  trees,  etc. 

8.  interest  inter  lumen  et  pro- 
spectum :  lumina  were  windows  or 


openings  in  a  building  for  purposes 
of  lighting  it.  Prospectus  is  the 
view  below,  upon  a  garden  or  sur- 
rounding park,  as  well  as  in  other 
directions. 

12.  Servitutes  rusticorum  prae- 
diorum: the  most  common  servi- 
tudes pertaining  to  land  are  :  way 
(iter,  actus,  via)  ;  conduct  of  water 
to  one's  own  land  over,  beneath, 
or  on  the  surface  of  another's  land 
(aquaeductus)  :  drawing  water 
from  another's  well  (aquaehaus- 
tus),  carrying  with  it  an  implied 
right  of  way  (iter)  ;  the  right  to 
water  stock  (pecoris  ad  aquani  ad- 
pulsus)  with  implied  way  (actus)  ; 
right  of  pasturage  (ius  pascendi)  ; 
right  of  burning  lime  (calcis  co- 
quendae)  ;  the  right  to  conduct  or 
drain  water  from  one's  own  land 
to  another's  {aquae  conducendae 


192 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN   LAW 

est  ius  agendi  vel  iumentum  vel  vehiculum;  itaque  qui 
iter  habet,  actum  non  habet,  qui  actum  habet,  et  iter  habet 
etiam  sine  iumento.  Via  est  ius  eundi  et  agendi  et  am-, 
bulandi ;  nam  et  iter  et  actum  in  se  via  continet.  Aquae- 

5  ductus  est  ius  aquam  ducendi  per  fundum  alienum.  In 
rusticis  computanda  sunt  aquaehaustus,  pecoris  ad  aquam 
adpulsus,  ius  pascendi,  calcis  coquendae,  harenae  fodiendae. 
Paul.  D.  Qui  sella  aut  lectica  vehitur,  ire,  non  agere 

8-3. 7  dicitur;  iumentum  vero  ducere  non  potest,  qui 

10  iter  tantum  habet.  Qui  actum  habet,  et  plostrum  ducere 
et  iumenta  agere  potest.  Sed  trahendi  lapidem  aut  tignum 
neutri  eorum  ius  est ;  quidam  nee  hastam  rectam  ei  ferre 
licere,  quia  neque  eundi  neque  agendi  gratia  id  faceret  et 
possent  fructus  eo  modo  laedi.  Qui  viam  habent,  eundi 

15  agendique  ius  habent ;  plerique  et  trahendi  quoque  et  rec- 
tam hastam  referendi,  si  modo  fructus  non  laedat. 
Gai.  D.  Viae  latitude  ex  lege  duodecim  tabularum  in 

8-  3. 8  porrectum  octo  pedes  habet,  in  anfractum,  id  est 

ubi  flexum  est,  sedecim. 

vel  immittendae).       There  were  12.   quidam  (sc.  credunf)   nee 

many  rural  servitudes   not  men-  hastam  rectam :  some  believe  that 

tioned  in  the  text.  he  is  not  allowed  to  carry  a  spear 

4.   iter  et  actum  in  se  via  conti-  upright,  because  this  would  be  no 

net :  the  servitits  viae  not  only  in-  part  of  a  servitude  eundi  or  agendi. 

eludes  iter  and  actus,  but  differs  14.  Qui  viam  habent :  those  who 

from  them  in  that  it  was  a  right  have  the  seriritus  viae  have  also 

of  paved  way  for  heavily  loaded  the  ius  eundi  agendique,  and  very 

wagons.      For    this    reason,   the  many  add  also,  the  ius  trahendi  et 

dragging  of  stone,  heavy  timber,  rectam  hastam  referendi. 

etc.,  was   permitted  only  by  the  17.   Viae  latitude  ex  lege  duo- 

servitus  viae,  since  by  such  use  decim:  this  was  the  statutory  provi- 

the  servient  property  was  not  in-  sion  for  the  width  of  the  way,  in  the 

jured    and    the    dominant    owner  absence  of  special  agreement  to  the 

injured  only  his  own  road  which  contrary.     If  nothing  was  agreed 

he  was  bound  to  maintain.  upon  regarding  the  width  of  iter 

ROMAN   LAW — 13  IQ3 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Ulp.  D. 
8.  4,  i,  i 


Ideo  autem  hae  servitutes  praediorum  appel- 
lantur,  quoniam  sine  praediis  constitui  non  pos- 
.sunt;  nemo  enim  potest  servitutem  adquirere  vel  urbani 
vel  rustic!  praedii,  nisi  qui  habet  praedium. 
5  Paul.  D.  Omnes  autem  servitutes  praediorum  perpetuas 

8,  2,  28  causas  habere  debent,  et  ideo  neque  ex  lacu  neque 

ex  stagno  concedi  aquaeductus  potest.     Stillicidii  quoque 
immittendi  naturalis  et  perpetua  causa  esse  debet. 


or  actus,  the  matter  was  deter- 
mined by  the  judge  (si  nihil  dic- 
tum est,  hoc  ab  arbitro  statuendum 
est.  In  via  aliud  iuris  est :  nam 
si  dicta  latitudo  non  est,  legiliina 
debet 'ur,  D.  8,  3,  13,  2). 

i .  servitutes  praediorum  appel- 
lantur :  the  owner  of  a  piece  of 
land  is  placed  in  partial  subjection 
to  his  neighbor.  The  sources 
state  that  the  land  serves  neigh- 
boring land  (fundi/s  servit  fundo, 
praedium  servit praedio) .  There 
must  always  be  two  pieces  of  land, 
having  different  owners.  The 
land  benefiting  by  the  servitude 
(cut  debet ur  servit  us,  or  quod  habet 
servitutem)  is  called  by  moderns 
praedium  dominans.  The  land 
burdened  by  the  servitude  (quod 
debet  servitutem),  the  Romans 
called  praedium  serviens.  Since 
these  servitudes  were  attached  to 
land,  the  Romans  regarded  them 
as  sen-ing  the  land  directly.  As 
to  the  question  whether  land  can 
have  rights,  see  the  interesting 
chapter  in  Holmes,  "The  Com- 
mon Law,1'  p.  383  f. 


"5.  perpetuas  causas  habere:  a 
servient  tenement  must  from  its 
natural  character  be  capable  of 
being  of  constant  advantage  (per- 
petua causa)  to  the  dominant 
tenement,  regardless  of  change  of 
ownership  of  the  land.  '  Servitus 
fun  do  utilis  esse  debet '  (utpomum 
decerpere  liceat,  et  ut  spatiari,  et 
ut  cenare  in  alieno  possimus,  ser- 
vitus  imponi  non  potest,  D.  8,  1, 8). 

Personal  Servitudes :  personal 
servitudes  are  those  conferring 
upon  individual  persons  rights 
which  may  be  exercised  over  the 
property  of  another  (praedium 
servit  per  son  ae),  just  as  real 
(praedial)  servitudes  are  imposed 
upon  a  thing  in  favor  of  another 
thing  (praedium  servit  praedio). 
Personal  servitudes  are  strictly 
personal  rights,  extinguished  at 
death  and,  unlike  real  servitudes, 
they  may  be  imposed  upon  mov- 
able, as  well  as  immovable,  prop- 
erty. Less  narrowly  defined  in 
scope  than  real  servitudes,  they 
are  much  more  limited  in  duration. 
Personal  servitudes,  at  the  most, 


194 


SELECTED   TEXTS    FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Paul.  D. 

7.1. ! 

Gai.  D. 

7.  i-  3,  * 


PERSONAL  SERVITUDES 

Vsus   fructus    est   ius     alienis    rebus    utendi 
fruendi  salva  rerum  substantia. 

Constitit  autem   usus  fructus  non  tantum  in 
fundo    et   aedibus,    verum    etiam   in    servis    et 
5  iumentis  ceterisque  rebus. 

uip.  D  Vetus  fuit  quaestio,  an  partus  ad  fructuarium 

7,  i,  68  pertineret ;  sed  Bruti  sententia  optinuit  fructu- 

arium in  eo  locum  non  habere ;  neque  enim  in  fructu  ho- 
minis  homo  esse  potest.     Hac  ratione  nee  usum  fructum  in 
10  eo  fructuarius  habebit. 


were  for  the  lifetime  of  the  person 
served.  Real  servitudes,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  other  reasons,  might  be 
perpetual  or  they  might  continue 
at  least  as  long  as  the  servient 
tenement  existed.  The  most  com- 
mon personal  servitudes  are : 
ususfructns,  nsits,  habitatio^  and 
operae  servorum  et  ani/nalium. 

i.  Vsus  fructus  est  ius  alienis 
rebus :  ususfrnctus  is  the  most 
comprehensive  of  the  personal 
servitudes.  The  one  entitled 
{usufruct  uar  ius)  has  the  exclu- 
sive right  to  use  and  enjoy  (ius 
utendi  et  fruendi)  the  property 
of  another,  including  its  increase, 
products,  and  income  {fructus 
naturales  et  civiles),  provided  the 
value  of  the  servient  thing  is  not 
impaired  {salva  rerum  substan- 
tia) .  But  see  nete  on  Fructuarius 
causam  proprietatis  below,  p.  1 96. 

6.  partus  ad  fructuarium  per- 
tineret :  partus,  offspring  (sc.  an- 


cillae),  is  commonly  used  of  the 
child  of  a  female  slave.  Inasmuch 
as  there  was  a  usufruct  of  slaves 
as  well  as  of  other  movable  prop- 
erty, such  as  flocks,  it  was  a  ques- 
tion whether  the  usufructuarius 
{fructuarius)  was  entitled  to  the 
usufruct  of  the  offspring  of  slaves 
as  well  as  of  flocks.  It  might  be 
expected  that  the  young  of  slaves 
should  be  treated  like  the  young  of 
flocks  and  beasts  of  burden.  Ulpian 
explains  that  slaves  are  not  owned 
primarily  for  breeding  purposes 
{non  temere  ancillae  eius  rei  causa 
comparantur  ut  pariant).  But 
this  is  true  also  of  cows  and  mares, 
whose  young  were  in  fructu.  Jus- 
tinian, following  Gaius,  adopts  the 
decision  of  the  text,  basing  it  upon 
the  superior  position  and  dignity 
of  human  beings  {partus  vero  an- 
cillae in  fructu  non  est,  itaque  ad 
dominum  proprietatis  pertinet : 
absurdiim  enim  videbatiir  homi- 


195 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

uip.  D.  Fructuarius  causam  proprietatis  deteriorem 

7.  i.  *3. 4  facere  non  debet,  meliorem  facere  potest.  Et 
aut  fundi  est  usus  fructus  legatus,  et  non  debet  neque 
arbores  frugiferas  excidere  neque  villam  diruere  nee 
5  quicquam  facere  in  perniciem  proprietatis.  Et  si  forte 
voluptarium  fuit  praedium,  virdiaria  vel  gestationes  vel 
deambulationes  arboribus  infructuosis  opacas  atque  amoe- 
nas  habens,  non  debebit  deicere,  ut  forte  hortos  olitorios 
faciat  vel  aliud  quid,  quod  ad  reditum  spectat.  Inde  est 

10  quaesitum,  an  lapidicinas  vel  cretifodinas  vel  harenifodinas 
ipse  instituere  possit ;  et  ego  puto  etiam  ipsum  instituere 
posse,  si  non  agri  partem  necessariam  huic  rei  occupaturus 
est.  Proinde  venas  quoque  lapidicinarum  et  huiusmodi 
metallorum  inquirere  poterit;  ergo  et  auri  et  argenti  et 

15  sulpuris  et  aeris  et  ferri  et  ceterorum  fodinas  vel  quas 
paterfamilias  instituit  exercere  poterit  vel  ipse  instituere, 
si  nihil  agriculturae  nocebit.  Et  si  forte  in  hoc  quod  insti- 

nem  in  fructu  esse,  cum  omnes  •  of  the  early  empire  allowed  a  quasi 
fructus  rerum  natura  hominum  iisusfructus  of  things  consumable, 
gratia  comparavit,  Inst.  2,  i,  37).  preceded  by  security  for  indemnity 
i.  Fructuarius  causam  proprieta-  or  restoration  of  the  same  quantity 
tis  :  the  usufructuarius  was  bound  and  quality,  or  for  the  payment  of 
to  make  proper  use  of  the  servient  the  money  value  of  the  thing  con- 
property  (arbitratu  boni  -viri)  and  sumed  (e.g.  vini,  olei,  frumenti 
to  restore  it  to  its  former  condition  ususfructus}.  Although  the  usus- 
upon  the  termination  of  the  servi-  fructus  is  a  personal  servitude,  the 
tude.  The  proprietor  {proprieta-  one  entitled  to  it  may,  by  agree- 
to  dominits)  took  security  (cautio)  ment,  allow  another  to  exercise  the 
from  the  usufructuarius  by  which  usufruct  either  gratuitously  or  for 
the  latter  was  personally  obliged  a  compensation.  The  right,  how- 
to  make  good  all'  losses  and  dete-  ever,  itself  is  not  transferable,  and 
rioration.  From  the  nature  of  the  usufmctuariits  is  responsible 
usufruct  there  can  be  no  such  ser-  to  the  owner  of  the  servient  prop- 
vitude  in  consumable  things  (res  erty  (i.e.  owner  of  the  nuda  pro- 
quae  itsu  consumuntur) .  A  SC  prietas)  for  proper  care  and  use. 

196 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE  ROMAN  LAW 

tuit  plus  reditus  sit  quam  in  vineis  vel  arbustis  vel  olivetis 
quae  fuerunt,  forsitan  etiam  haec  deicere  poterit,  si  quidem 
ei  permittitur  meliorare  proprietatem. 

Isdem  istis  modis,  quibus  usus  fructus  consti- 

Inst.  2,  5,  pr. 

5  tuitur,  etiam  nudus  usus  constitui  solet  isdemque 

illis  modis  finitur,  quibus  et  usus  fructus  desinit.  Minus 
autem  scilicet  iuris  in  usu  est  quam  in  usu  fructu.  Nam- 
que  is,  qui  fundi  nudum  usum  habet,  nihil  ulterius  habere 
intellegitur,  quam  ut  oleribus,  pomis,  floribus,  feno,  stramen- 

10  tis,  lignis  ad  usum  cottidianum  utatur ;  in  eoque  fundo  hac- 
tenus  ei  morari  licet,  ut  neque  domino  fundi  molestus  sit 
neque  his,  per  quos  opera  rustica  fiunt,  impedimento  sit ; 
nee  ulli  alii  ius  quod  habet  aut  vendere  aut  locare  aut  gra- 
tis concedere  potest,  cum  is  qui  usum  fructum  habet  potest 

15  haec  omnia  facere.  Item  is,  qui  aedium  usum  habet,  hac- 
tenus  iuris  habere  intellegitur,  ut  ipse  tantum  habitet,  nee 
hoc  ius  ad  alium  transferre  potest ;  et  vix  receptum  vide- 
tur,  ut  hospitem  ei  recipere  liceat.  Et  cum  uxore  sua 
liberisque  suis,  item  libertis  nee  non  aliis  liberis  personis, 

20  quibus  non  minus  quam  servis  utitur,  habitandi  ius  habeat ; 
et  convenienter  si  ad  mulierem  usus  aedium  pertineat,  cum 
marito  habitare  liceat. 

uip.  D.  Praeter   habitationem  quam  habet,   cui  usus 

7, 8, 12,  i        datus  est  deambulandi  quoque  et  gestandi  ius 

5.   nudus  usus  constitui  solet :  nsusfructus.     The  user  originally 

the  servitude  usus  is  limited  to  the  could  not  take  any  fruits,  natural 

mere  use  of  the  thing,  not  to  its  or  civil,  but  this  was  modified  by 

fruits    (cm   usus  relictus  est,   nti  interpretation  in  his  favor,  so  that 

potest,  frui  non  potest,  D.  7,8,2)  he  was  allowed  sufficient  for  his 

beyond  what  was  required  for  the  daily     requirements.       He     was 

daily  needs  of  the  user  and  his  obliged  to  furnish  the  cautio  usu- 

family.     It  was,  therefore,  a  much  aria  to  indemnify  the  proprietor 

more    restricted     servitude    than  against  loss  or  damage. 

197 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

habebit.  Sabinus  et  Cassius  et  lignis  ad  usum  cottidianum 
et  horto  et  pomis  et  holeribus  et  floribus  et  aqua  usurum, 
non  usque  ad  compendium,  sed  ad  usum,  scilicet  non  usque 
ad  abusum ;  idem  Nerva,  et  adicit  stramentis  et  sarmen- 
5  tis  etiam  usurum,  sed  neque  foliis  neque  oleo  neque  fru- 
mento  neque  frugibus  usurum.  Sed  Sabinus  et  Cassius  et 
Labeo  et  Proculus  hoc  amplius  etiam  ex  his  quae  in  fundo 
nascuntur,  quod  ad  victum  sibi  suisque  sufficiat  sumpturum 
et  ex  his  quae  Nerva  negavit ;  luventius  etiam  cum  con- 
10  vivis  et  hospitibus  posse  uti ;  quae  sententia  mihi  vera 
videtur. 

Item  is,  ad  quern  servi  usus  pertinet,  ipse  tan- 

Inst.  2,5, 3  .  .    .  . 

turn  opens  atque  ministeno  ems  uti  potest :  ad 
alium  vero  nullo  modo  ins  suum  transferre  ei  concessum 

15  est.  Idem  scilicet  iuris  est  et  in  iumento.  Sed  si  pecoris 
vel  ovium  usus  legatus  fuerit,  neque  lacte  neque  agnis 
neque  lana  utetur  usuarius,  quia  ea  in  fructu  sunt.  Plane 
ad  stercorandum  agrum  suum  pecoribus  uti  potest.  Sed 
si  cui  habitatio  legata  sive  aliquo  modo  constituta  sit,  neque 

20  usus  videtur  neque  usus  fructus,  sed  quasi  proprium  ali- 
quod  ius.  Quam  habitationem  habentibus  propter  rerum 
utilitatem  secundum  Marcelli  sententiam  nostra  decisione 
promulgata  permisimus  non  solum  in  ea  degere,  sed  etiam 
aliis  locare. 


20.   quasi  proprium  aliquod  ius  :  fructns  and  usus  in  that  it  was 

habitatio  was  peculiar  in  that  the  not  lost  by  change  of  status  (capi- 

one  enjoying  this  servitude  could  tis  deminittio)    or    by    non-user, 

permit    another    to   exercise    the  For  other  servitudes  of  a  peculiar 

right  (in  the  law  of  Justinian)  for  character  in  the  law  of  Justinian, 

compensation,  and  it  was,  further-  see  Class.  Diet.,  articles  Emphy- 

more,  less   restricted   than   usus-  teusis  and  Superficies. 


198 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Paul.  D. 
44,7,3 


THE  LAW  OF  OBLIGATIONS  (Obligationes) 

Obligationum  substantia  non  in  eo  consistit, 
ut   aliquod  corpus  nostrum  aut  servitutem  no- 

stram  faciat,  sed  ut  alium   nobis  obstringat   ad    dandum 

aliquid  vel  faciendum  vel  praestandum. 
5  Gai.  D.  Creditorum  appellatione  non  hi  tantum  acci- 

50, 16,  ii        piuntur,  qui  pecuniam  crediderunt,  sed  omnes, 

quibus  ex  qualibet  causa  debetur ; 

uip.  D.  ut  si  cui  ex  empto  vel  ex  locato  vel  ex  alio  ullo 

50, 16, 12        debetur.     Sed  et  si  ex  delicto  debeatur,   mihi 
10  videtur  posse  creditoris  loco  accipi. 

Mod.  D.  Debitor    intellegitur    is    a    quo    invito   exigi 

50, 16, 108       pecunia  potest. 


i.  Obligationum  substantia  : 
the  essence  of  obligation  is  not  to 
make  a  thing  (corpus)  or  a  servi- 
tude our  own,  but  it  is  a  legal 
relation  existing  between  two  per- 
sons whereby  one  of  them  (credi- 
tor} is  entitled  to  compel  the  other 
(debitor)  to  some  performance  (ad 
dandum,  etc.)  having  a  money 
value  (debere  means  '  to  have  less,' 
de  +  habere) .  Obligatio  (obligare) 
indicates  therefore  a  legal  bond, 
the  two  parties  being  tied  together 
by  law.  This  bond  may  be  estab- 
lished by  the  parties  voluntarily 
(as  by  contract),  or  without  their 
consent  (as  by  delict).  There  is 
no  important  distinction  between 
the  words  dare,  facere,  and  prae- 
stare.  Facere,  '  to  do  something,' 
and  praestare,  '  to  make  good,1  i  to 
compensate,',  were  often  used  for 


dare.  In  all  cases  the  payment 
of  a  sum  of  money  was  the  ulti- 
mate means  of  loosening  the  tie 
(soltitio)  established  by  an  obli- 
gatio. 

5.  Creditorum  appellatione  : 
creditor  and  debitor  are  general 
terms  signifying,  respectively,  the 
party  entitled  to  a  right  arising 
from  an  obligation,  and  the  party 
upon  whom  the  duty  of  performance 
is  imposed.  Debitor  is  not  merely 
one  from  whom  payment  is  due  in 
the  English  sense  of  debtor,  but 
he  is  any  one  from  whom  money 
may  be  demanded  against  his  will 
(eo  invito),  whether  the  obligation 
arises  from  a  promise  (ex  con- 
tractu)  or  from  a  wrong  (ex 
delicto),  ea  eniin  in  obligatione 
consistere,  quae  pecunia  lui  prae- 
starique  possimt,  D.  40,  7,  9,  2. 


199 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  3, 13,  pr. 


Obligatio  est  iuris  vinculum,  quo  necessitate 
adstringimur   alicuius   solvendae  rei  secundum 
nostrae  civitatis  iura. 

Gal.  D.  Obligationes  aut  ex  contractu  nascuntur  aut 

5  44. 7- 1  ex  maleficio  aut  proprio  quodam  iure  ex  variis 

causarum  figuris. 

Sequens  divisio  in  quattuor  species  diducitur : 
aut  enim  ex  contractu  sunt  aut  quasi  ex  con- 
tractu aut  ex  maleficio  aut  quasi  ex  maleficio.     Prius  est, 


Inst.  3,  13,  2 


i.  Obligatio  est  iuris  vinculum : 
careful  attention  to  the  metaphor 
contained  in  this  definition  will 
assist  toward  a  proper  understand- 
ing of  it.  Obligatio  (ob  +  ligare) 
is  a  binding,  i.e.  a  legal  bond  (iuris 
vinculum)  by  which  two  parties 
are  fastened  together  (adstringere) 
in  such  a  way  that  one  may  be  re- 
quired to  dissolve  the  bond  by 
money  payment  (necessitate  alicu- 
ius solvendae  rei)  under  compul- 
sion of  law  (secundum  nostrae 
civitatis  iura).  It  is  the  law  that 
ties  and  unties  the  knot  (pbligare, 
solver e). 

4.  Obligationes  aut  ex  contractu : 
all  obligations  arise  from  contract, 
from  wrongs  (ex  maleficio),  or  from 
other  relations  of  a  legal  character 
(ex  variis  causarum  figuris)  which 
the  jurists  assign  by  analogy  to 
one  or  the  other  of  the  two  main 
divisions  of  obligations  (hence 
called  obligationes  quasi  ex  con- 
tractu, quasi  ex  maleficio).  See 
text  and  notes  below.  Not  every 
agreement  in  Roman  law  gives 


rise  to  a  legally  binding  obliga- 
tion. In  the  old  ius  civile  only 
those  promises  were  binding  which 
were  made  in  full  conformity  with 
the  requirements  of  the  law  as 
regards  their  form  and  content. 
All  other  agreements  were  with- 
out legal  effect  (nuda  pacta),  ex 
nudo  pacto  inter  cives  Romanos 
act  to  non  nascitur,  Paul.  2,  14,  i. 
Later,  pacta  gave  rise  to  an  obli- 
gation by  help  of  the  praetor  and 
special  legislation  (pacta  prae- 
tor ia  and  legitima).  A  promise 
made  to  the  state  or  a  solemn 
promise  or  vow  (votmii)  made  to  a 
divinity  (i.e.  a  mere  promise  with- 
out formal  acceptance)  gave  rise 
to  an  obligation  (si  quis  rein  ali- 
quam  voverit,  voto  obligatur). 

8.  quasi  ex  contractu:  obligations 
may  also  arise  without  agreement 
from  a  state  of  facts  which  render 
one  person  bound  to  another  as  if 
they  had  agreed,  e.g.  one  person 
conducts  another's  business  during 
the  latter's  absence  to  preserve  his 
property  from  perishing  or  suffer 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


ut  de  his  quae  ex  contractu  sunt  dispiciamus.  Harum 
aeque  quattuor  species  sunt  :  aut  enim  re  contrahuntur 
aut  verbis  aut  litteris  aut  consensu.  De  quibus  singulis 
dispiciamus. 

OBLIGATIONS   EX   CONTRACTV 


REAL    CONTRACTS 


Inst.  3,  14,  pr. 


Re  contrahitur  obligatio  veluti  mutui  datione. 

.  .    .         .     .     ,  .         . 

Mutui  autem  obligatio  in  his  rebus  consistit,  quae 
pondere,  numero,  mensurave  constant,  veluti  vino,  oleo,  fru- 
mento,  pecunia  numerata,  acre,  argento,  auro,  quas  res  aut 


ing  injury,  called  negotiorum gestio. 
The  legal  relations  here  between 
the  parties  resembled  the  obliga- 
tions arising  ex  contractu,  and  the 
fictitious  character  of  these  bonds 
the  jurists  represented  by  the  term 
quasi-contractus.  O  b  liga  tiones 
quasi  ex  maleficio  (or  delictd)  were 
likewise  similar  to  those  arising 
ex  maleficio,  as  when  a  passer-by 
was  injured  by  something  thrown 
from  a  window  above.  Regardless 
of  the  person  perpetrating  the 
wrongful  act,  the  injured  party  was 
entitled  to  an  action  against  the 
occupier  of  the  house  or  room  from 
which  the  act  originated.  See  also 
text  below  (Obligations  quasi  ex 
Delict o,  p.  255). 

2.  aut  enim  re  contrahuntur :  in 
the  early  law  all  contractual  rela- 
tions required  a  certain  external 
formality  to  insure  their  validity. 
The  oldest  form  of  contract  was 
nexum  (tiectere,  bind),  a  bond  en- 


tered into  by  mancipatio  and  stipu- 
latio,  consisting  of  the  utterance  of 
certain  formal  words  (verbis).  In 
the  later  law  contracts  could  be 
concluded  re  (real  contracts),  i.e. 
by  the  very  nature  of  their  content, 
as  by  the  intervention  of  a  thing 
(res)  delivered  by  one  party  to 
another ;  litteris,  where  the  con- 
tract is  based  on  a  written  ac- 
knowledgment of  debt ;  consensu, 
where  the  contract  arises  from  the 
mere  consent  of  the  parties,  with- 
out formalities.  Contracts  arising 
•verbis  and  litteris  may  be  called 
formal,  those  arising  re  and  con- 
sensu, informal. 

5.  mutui  datione  :  mutuum  is  a 
gratuitous  loan  for  consumption, 
the  thing  loaned  to  be  returned  in 
kind  and  quality  only.  For  the 
false  etymology  see  note  on  curias, 
p.  45.  Mutuum  is  a  negotium  stricti 
iuris,  and  the  action  by  which  an 
equivalent  in  kind  is  enforced  is 


201 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


numerando  aut  metiendo  aut  pendendo  in  hoc  damns,  ut 
accipientium  fiant  et  quandoque  nobis  non  eaedem  res,  sed 
aliae  eiusdem  naturae  et  qualitatis  reddantur.  Vnde  etiam 
mutuum  appellatum  sit,  quia  ita  a  me  tibi  datur,  ut  ex  meo 

5  tuum  fiat.     Ex  eo  contractu  nascitur  actio  quae  vocatur 
condictio. 

Item  is  cui  res  aliqua  utenda  datur,  id  est 
commodatur,  re  obligatur  et  tenetur  commodati 
actione.     Sed  is  ab  eo  qui  mutuum  accepit  longe  distat : 

10  namque  non  ita  res  datur,  ut  eius  fiat,  et  ob  id  de  ea  re  ipsa 
restituenda  tenetur.  Et  is  quidem  qui  mutuum  accepit,  si 
quolibet  fortuito  casu  quod  accepit  amiserit,  veluti  incendio, 
ruina,  naufragio  aut  latronum  hostiumve  incursu,  nihilo 


Inst.  3,  14,  2 


called,  therefore,  condictio  or  con- 
dictio certi,  i.e.  an  actio  for  the  re- 
covery of  a  fixed  and  definite  thing 
—  no  more  and  no  less.  The  thing 
loaned  becomes  the  property  of 
the  borrower.  He  is  not  bound 
to  pay  interest  (e.g.  for  money 
loan)  unless  an  express  contract 
to  that  effect  has  been  entered  into 
by  stipulatio. 

7.  res  aliqua  utenda :  commoda- 
tum  is  a  loan  for  use  only,  the 
borrower  being  bound  to  return 
the  identical  thing  borrowed,  dif- 
fering therein  from  unit  mun. 
Commodatuin  is  a  bonae  fidei  ne- 
gofiitm,  i.e.  the  liability  of  the 
parties  is  not  exactly  determined 
and  defined.  The  borrower  is 
bound  to  bestow  unusual  care 
upon  the  thing,  since  he  alone  is 
benefited  by  the  contract,  but  he 
is  not  liable  for  the  usual  wear  and 


tear,  nor  for  theft  or  accident 
(casus,  vis  maior)  unless  the 
thing  has  been  put  to  other  use 
than  that  contracted  for.  The 
lender,  having  no  interest  in  the 
contract,  is  liable  only  for  dolus 
('  intentional  wrong,  fraud ')  and 
culpa  lata  ('  gross  negligence 1) . 
Like  mittuum,  commodatum  is 
strictly  gratuitous,  otherwise  it 
becomes  locatio  conductio  (i.e.  a 
contractus  ex  consensii).  The 
lender  has  the  actio  commodati 
(directa)  for  the  recovery  of  the 
thing  loaned.  The  borrower  has 
the  actio  commodati  (contraria) 
by  which  he  may  recover  from  the 
lender  the  amount  of  damage  or 
expense  which  the  thing  may  have 
caused  (e.g.  illness  of  a  loaned 
slave,  or  damage  caused  by  a  vi- 
cious horse,  supposed  to  be 
gentle). 


202 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN  LAW 


minus  obligatus  permanet.  At  is  qui  utendum  accepit  sane 
quidem  exactam  diligentiam  custodiendae  rei  praestare  iube- 
tur  nee  sufficit  ei  tantam  diligentiam  adhibuisse,  quantam 
suis  rebus  adhibere  solitus  est,  si  modo  alius  diligentior 

5  poterit  earn  rem  custodire  ;  sed  propter  maiorem  vim  maio- 
resve  casus  non  tenetur,  si  modo  non  huius  culpa  is  casus 
intervenerit;  alioquin  si  id  quod  tibi  commodatum  est  peregre 
ferre  tecum  malueris  et  vel  incursu  hostium  praedonumve 
vel  naufragio  amiseris,  dubium  non  est,  quin  de  restituenda 

10  ea  re  tenearis.  Commodata  autem  res  tune  proprie  intel- 
legitur,  si  nulla  mercede  accepta  vel  constituta  res  tibi 
utenda  data  est.  Alioquin  mercede  interveniente  locatus 


2.  exactam  diligentiam :  diligcn- 
tia  is  the  care  or  skill  which  per- 
sons are  required  by  law  to  exhibit 
in  their  conduct.  It  has  different 
degrees :  the  usual  diligence  of 
ordinarily  careful  people ;  and  a 
high  degree  of  diligence  expected 
from  those  especially  qualified  for 
the  performance  of  their  duties 
(exacta  diligentia,  omnis  diligen- 
tia, diligentia  diligentis,  or  diligen- 
tissimi,  patrisfamilias) .  A  person 
from  whom  this  latter  degree  of 
diligence  is  exacted  is  liable  even 
for  a  slight  degree  of  negligence, 
measured  by  an  absolute  standard 
(levis  citlpa  in  abstracto,  as  called 
by  moderns),  i.e.  if  a  more  care- 
ful man  could  have  prevented  the 
injury  (si  modo  alius  diligentior 
poterit  earn  rem  custodire).  The 
degree  of  diligence  otherwise  re- 
quired is  that  which  a  person  or- 
dinarily bestows  upon  his  own 
affairs  (quantum  suis  rebus  ad- 


hibere solitus  est).  The  standard 
is  in  this  case  relative,  since  one 
man  exercises  mofe  care  than  an- 
other over  his  own  affairs.  A  less 
degree  of  care  than  usual  renders 
one  liable  for  negligence  (culpa 
levis  in  concreto,  as  named  by 
moderns). 

9.  quin  de  restituenda  ea  re  ten- 
earis :  by  the  contract  called  com- 
modatum, the  borrower  is  bound  to 
exercise  the  highest  degree  of  care, 
because  the  contract  is  entirely 
in  his  interest  (nulla  mercede  ac- 
cepta). Although  the  borrower 
is  not  liable  for  accidental  loss  or 
damage,  if  he  use  the  thing  for 
any  other  purpose  or  in  any  other 
way  than  that  agreed  upon,  he 
becomes  liable  even  for  unavoid- 
able accident  (casus,  vis  maior). 
If  compensation  were  paid  (mer- 
cede accepta),  this  contract  would 
be  one  of  hiring  or  letting  (locatio- 
conductio,  see  below,  text,  p.  217). 


203 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

tibi  usus  rei  videtur,  gratuitum  enim  debet  esse  commoda- 
tum.  Praeterea  et  is,  apud  quern  res  aliqua  deponitur,  re 
obligatur  et  actione  depositi,  qui  et  ipse  de  ea  re  quam 
accepit  restituenda  tenetur.  Sed  is  ex  eo  solo  tenetur,  si 
5  quid  dolo  commiserit,  culpae  autem  nomine,  id  est  desidiae 
atque  neglegentiae,  non  tenetur ;  itaque  securus  est  qui 
parum  diligenter  custoditam  rem  furto  amisit,  quia,  qui 
neglegenti  amico  rem  custodiendam  tradit,  suae  facilitati 
id  imputare  debet.  Creditor  quoque  qui  pignus  accepit  re 

10  obligatur,  qui  et  ipse  de  ea  ipsa  re  quam  accepit  restituenda 
tenetur  actione  pigneraticia.  Sed  quia  pignus  utriusque 
gratia  datur,  et  debitoris,  quo  magis  ei  pecunia  crederetur, 
et  creditoris,  quo  magis  ei  in  tuto  sit  creditum,  placuit  suffi- 
cere,  quod  ad  earn  rem  custodiendam  exactam  diligentiam 

15  adhiberet ;  quam  si  praestiterit  et  aliquo  f ortuitu  casu  rem 
amiserit,  securum  esse  nee  impediri  creditum  petere. 

2.  apud  quern  res  aliqua  deponi-  has  a  real  right  (ius  in  rem)  in  the 
tur :  depositum  is  a  contract  by  thing  pledged  (as  mortgagee),  but 
which  one  party  delivers  to  another  he  is  also  (quoque)  bound  by  the 
a  thing  for  safe-keeping  without  delivery  of  the  thing  (re)  to  re- 
compensation.  As  this  contract  store  it  to  the  pledgor  (debitor} 
is  for  the  benefit  of  the  depositor,  on  certain  conditions  arising  from 
the  depositee,  deriving  no  benefit  the  contract  of  pignus.  The 
from  it,  is  liable  only  for  fraud  pledgee  is  bound  to  bestow  the 
(dolus)  and  wilful  negligence  highest  degree  of  care  upon  the 
(culpa  lata).  The  depositor  has  thing,  because  he  is  directly  inter- 
the  actio  depositi  (direct a)  for  the  ested  in  the  contract.  He  is  not 
recovery  of  the  thing  deposited  ;  responsible  for  casus,  and  may  even 
the  depositee,  the  actio  depositi  recover  the  value  of  the  pledge,  if 
(contraria)  for  the  recovery  of  any  it  perish  by  accident.  The  pledgor 
expense  which  the  custody  of  the  has  the  actio  pigneraticia  (directa) 
thing  entailed.  for  the  recovery  of  the  pledge,  after 

9.  Creditor  qui  pignus  accepit  the  payment  of  the  debt  secured 

re:  pignus  is  a  contract  arising  from  by  it.  The  pledgee  has  the  actio 

the  delivery  of  a  thing  as  a  pledge.  pigneraticia  (contraria)  for  the 

The  creditor  (pledgee)  not  only  recovery  of  any  expenses  caused 

204 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  3, 15,  pr. 


VERBAL  CONTRACTS  (Verbis} 

Verbis    obligatio   contrahitur   ex    interrogati- 
one  et  responsu,   cum   quid    dari  fierive  nobis 
stipulamur. 

Pompon.  D.        Stipulatio  est  verborum  conceptio,  quibus  is 
5  45.  i.  5.  i        qui  interrogatur  daturum  facturumve  se  quod 
interrogatus  est  respondent. 

Verbis  obligatio  fit  ex  interrogatione  et  respon- 
sione,  veluti  dari  spondes  ?  spondeo;  dabis  ?  dabo; 
promittis?  promitto;  fide  promittis  ?  fide  promitto;  fide  iubes? 


Gai.  3,  92 


by  the  preservation  of  the  pledge. 
Both  parties  being  interested  in 
this  contract,  they  are  equally  an- 
swerable for  exacta  diligentia. 

i.  Verbis  obligatio  contrahitur  : 
the  contract  arising  verbis  re- 
quired the  utterance  of  formal 
words,  one  party  stating  a  ques- 
tion, the  other  giving  a  reply  cor- 
responding to  the  question.  The 
obligation  arising  from  this  mode 
of  contracting  was  binding  in  the 
absence  of  all  consideration.  Here 
the  solemn  form  of  words  make 
the  agreement  valid,  giving  rise  to 
a  formal  contract  called  stipulatio. 
A  promise  without  the  question  to 
•which  it  corresponded  gave  rise  to 
a  mere  nudum  pactuin,  which  was 
not  a  valid  agreement  (ex  nudo 
pacto  non  oritur  actio).  The 
Roman  contract  arising  iterbis 
should  not  be  confused  with  the 
English  parol  contract.  Unlike 
the  latter,  the  Roman  verbal  con- 
tract is  the  most  formal  known  to 


the  Roman  law.  In  its  most  an- 
cient form,  this  contract  required 
the  use  of  the  words  spondesne  ? 
spondeo,  which  could  be  employed 
by  Roman  citizens  only.  The 
ancient  sponsio  was  probably  sol- 
emnized by  a  libation  (cf.  oTreVSetv) 
and  was  of  the  nature  of  a  solemn 
oath,  or  religious  act  which  devel- 
oped into  a  formal  contract.  In 
some  instances,  in  the  later  law 
even,  the  sponsio  retained  the 
force  of  a  moral  obligation  only, 
as,  e.g.  in  betrothal  (sponsalia),  a 
promise  which  was  not  actionable. 
Cf.  note  on  Betrothal,  p.  119. 

9.  promittis  ?  promitto  :  from 
very  early  times  other  words  were 
employed  in  the  stipulatio  where 
peregrini  were  concerned.  After 
a  time  the  stipulatio  lost  its  formal 
character  and  any  words  could  be 
employed  in  question  and  answer 
which  left  no  doubt  as  to  the  agree- 
ment of  the  parties,  i.e.  the  ques- 
tion or  the  answer  might  be  in 


SELECTED  TEXTS    FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 

fide  iubeo ;  facies  ?  faciam.  Sed  haec  quidem  verborum 
obligatio,  dari  spondes  ?  spondeo,  propria  civium  Romano- 
rum  est ;  ceterae  vero  iuris  gentium  sunt,  itaque  inter 
omnes  homines,  sive  cives  Romanos  sive  peregrines  valent 
5  et  quamvis  ad  Graecam  vocem  expressae  f  uerint,  etiam  hae 
tamen  inter  cives  Romanos  valent,  si  modo  Graeci  sermonis 
intellectum  habeant. 

Verborum  obligatio  inter  praesentes,  non  etiam 

Paul.  5,  7,  2  !"*•«•• 

inter  absentes  contrahitur.    Quod  si  scriptum  fue- 
10  rit  instrumento  promisisse  aliquem,  perinde  habetur,  atque 
si  interrogatione  praecedente  responsum  sit. 

LITERAL  CONTRACTS  (Litteris} 
Litteris   obligatio    fit  veluti   nominibus   tran- 

Gai.  3,  128 

scnpticns.      Fit   autem    nomen   transcnpticium 

duplici  modo,  vel  a  re  in  personam  vel  a  persona  in  per- 

15  sonam.     A  re  in  personam  transcriptio  fit,  veluti  si  id,  quod 

Greek  or  Latin,  or  the  question  in  that  the  contract  had  been  con- 
Greek  and  the  answer  in  Latin,  eluded  inter  praesentes.  The 
or  the  reverse.  The  sponsio  and  stipitlatio  was  a  favorite  mode  of 
stipulatio  are  favorite  ways  of  rendering  informal  agreements 
making  engagements  in  Plautus,  formal  and  actionable,  and  in 
often  for  a  humorous  effect,  e.g.  transferring  an  obligation  from 
Cure.  675 ;  Epid.  8.  one  party  to  another. 

9.   Quod  si  scriptum  fuerit  in-  12.  Litteris  obligatio  fit :  the  ob- 

strumento  :    it  became  customary  ligation  arising  litter  is,  the  so-called 

for  the  purpose  of  proving  an  agree-  literal   contract,  grew   out  of  the 

ment  which  had  been  made  orally  very  ancient  custopi  of  bookkeep- 

to  have  a  written  instrument  (can-  ing  at  Rome.     Every  Roman  citi- 

tio)  drawn  up  in  which  the  words  zen  was  expected  to  keep  a  careful 

of  the   spoken   formula  were   in-  and  accurate  record  of  his  receipts 

scribed.      This   instrument   came  and  expenditures  (codex  accept:  et 

to  be  evidence  of  the  contract  and  expensi).     This  ancient  ledger  of 

was    regarded    as    a  presumption  the  Romans  was  called  codex.     It 

206 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

tu  ex  emptionis  causa  aut  conductionis  aut  societatis  mihi 
debeas,  id  expensum  tibi  tulero.  A  persona  in  personam 
transcriptio  fit,  veluti  si  id,  quod  mihi  Titius  debet,  tibi  id 
expensum  tulero,  id  est  si  Titius  te  delegaverit  mihi.  Alia 
5  causa  est  eorum  nominum,  quae  arcaria  vocantur.  In  his 
enim  rei,  non  litterarum  obligatio  consistit,  quippe  non 


was  originally  a  series  of  wax 
tablets  joined  together  like  a  book 
slate.  The  codex  was  posted 
monthly,  the  items  being  tran- 
scribed from  the  day  book  (ad- 
versaria) and  entered  accurately 
under  the  proper  heading  as  ac- 
cepta  or  expensa.  The  adversaria 
might  then  be  destroyed.  Items 
so  recorded  were  of  great  value  as 
evidence  of  money  transactions 
(debits  and  credits).  According 
to  Dionysius  citizens  swore  to 
the  accuracy  of  their  ledgers  be- 
fore the  censor.  Out  of  this  cus- 
tom grew  the  literal  contract. 
Instead  of  the  mere  record  of  the 
fact  of  receipts  and  disbursements, 
a  legal  relation  arose  by  the  no- 
mina  transcripticia.  The  record 
of  an  item  in  the  codex  of  the  cred- 
itor with  the  consent  of  the  debtor, 
created  a  legal  bond  between 
debtor  and  creditor.  It  is  imma- 
terial whether  a  corresponding 
entry  of  the  debt  is  made  in  the 
books  of  the  debtor.  The  mere 
entry  of  the  debt  in  the  books  of 
the  creditor,  under  the  proper  con- 
ditions, produces  the  contract. 

13  (p. 206).  Fit nomen transcrip- 
ticium  duplici  modo  :  the  entry  of 


the  item  (nomen,  i.e.  name  of  the 
debtor,  then  the  debt  itself)  is  made 
in  the  creditor's  book  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  debtor.  The  obliga- 
tion may,  however,  be  transformed 
(nomen  transcripticium)  in  one 
of  two  ways  (duplici  modo)  :  the 
basis  of  the  obligation  may  be 
changed,  e.g.  when  something  is 
due  on  a  contract  of  sale,  the 
debtor  may  assent  to  his  creditor's 
entering  the  debt  on  his  books. 
The  creditor  can  then  enforce  his 
claim  on  a  contract  litteris  instead 
of  a  contract  of  sale  (emptionis 
causa).  This  is  called  tratiscrip- 
tio  a  re  in  personam.  There  may 
also  be  effected  in  this  way  a 
change  of  party  to  the  debt,  as 
when  one  person  assumed  the  debt 
of  another.  This  was  called  tran- 
scriptio a  persona  in  personam. 
It  is  said  of  the  creditor  '•expensum 
ferjre ' ;  of  the  debtor  '  acceptum 
ferre]  when  each  party  respec- 
tively made  entry  of  the  loan  and 
its  payment. 

5.  quae  arcaria  vocantur :  arca- 
riitm  nomen  was  the  entry  of  the 
amount  of  money  counted  out 
(pecunia  nuinerata)  from  the 
cash  box  (area).  It  was,  there- 


207 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

aliter  valent,  quam  si  numerata  sit  pecunia.  Numeratio 
autem  pecuniae  re  facit  obligationem ;  qua  de  causa  recte 
dicemus,  arcaria  nomina  nullam  facere  obligationem,  sed 
obligationis  factae  testimonium  praebere.  Vnde  non  pro- 
5  prie  dicitur,  arcariis  nominibus  etiam  peregrinos  obligari, 
quia  non  ipso  nomine,  sed  numeratione  pecuniae  obligan- 
tur;  quod  genus  obligationis  iuris  gentium  est.  Tran- 
scripticiis  vero  nominibus  an  obligentur  peregrini,  merito 
quaeritur,  quia  quodammodo  iuris  civilis  est  talis  obligatio ; 

10  quod  Nervae  placuit.  Sabino  autem  et  Cassio  visum  est, 
si  a  re  in  personam  fiat  nomen  transcripticium,  etiam  pere- 
grinos obligari  ;  si  vero  a  persona  in  personam,  non  obligari. 
Praeterea  litterarum  obligatio  fieri  videtur  chirographis 
et  syngraphis,  id  est,  si  quis  debere  se  aut  daturum  se 

15  scribat ;  ita  scilicet  si  eo  nomine  stipulatio  non  fiat :  quod 
genus  obligationis  proprium  peregrinorum  est. 

fore,  the  record  of  a  genuine  loan  while  the  literal  contract  was  an 

(i.e.  the  actual  payment  of  money  institution  of  the   ins  civile  and 

giving  rise  to  a  ret  obligatio),  not  applicable  only  to  cives  Romani. 

merely  of  an  obligation  arising  from  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  nomen 

the   fact  of  record  in  the  ledger  transcripticium  a  re  in  personatn 

of  the   creditor  (litterarum   obit-  was  binding  upon  peregrini,  not 

gatio),  i.e.  numeratio  atttem  pecu-  so,   however,   one  a  persona   in 

niae  ret  facit   obligationem,   but  personam. 

arcaria  nomina  are  only  evidence  13.   obligatio  fieri  videtur  chiro- 

of  an   obligation  arising   from   a  graphis :  the  literal  contract  disap- 

real  {re)  contract.    Nomina  area-  peared  before  the  time  of  Justin- 

ria  were  converted  into  contracts  ian,  owing  to  the  general  decline 

litteris  only  by  the  intention  of  in   bookkeeping   after  citizenship 

the  parties  that  such  a  transfer-  was   extended   to  the  entire   free 

mation  shall  be  made.  population  of  the   Roman  world. 

5.   arcariis  nominibus  peregrinos  Written  contracts  of  Greek  origin 

obligari :    arcaria    nomina    bind  were  the  chirographum  and  syn- 

peregrini  because  the  contracts  re  grapha   or   promissory    note,  by 

were  derived  from  the  ius  gentium,  which  the  debtor  agrees  to  pay  a 

208 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

CONSENSUAL  CONTRACTS  (Consenszi) 

Consensu    fiunt   obligationes   in  emptionibus 

venditionibus,   locationibus   conductionibus,    so- 

cietatibus,  mandatis.      Ideo   autem   istis   modis   consensu 

dicimus  obligationes  contrahi,  quia  neque  verborum  neque 

5  scripturae  ulla  proprietas  desideratur,  sed  sufficit  eos,  qui 

negotium  gerunt,  consensisse  ;  unde  inter  absentes  quoque 

talia  negotia  contrahuntur,  veluti  per  epistulam  aut  per 

internuntium,  cum   alioquin  verborum  obligatio  inter  ab- 

sentes fieri  non  possit. 

SALE  (Emptio  Venditid) 

10  Paul.  D.  Origo  emendi  vendendique  a  permutationibus 

18,  i,pr.  coepit.  Olim  enim  non  ita  erat  nummus  neque 
aliud  merx,  aliud  pretium  vocabatur,  sed  unusquisque  secun- 
dum  necessitatem  temporum  ac  rerum  utilibus  inutilia  per- 

certain  sum  of  money,  the  instru-  ing     formalities     (e.g.     contracts 

ment   being  the  evidence  of  the  litteris,  verbis),  and,  as  they  are 

contract.    Thoc&irografitetfrt&OA-  informal  and  arose  from  the  corn- 

nates  from  the  debtor  alone  ('  writ-  mon  business  requirements  of  all 

ten    with    his    own    hand'),   the  peoples,  they  are  called  contracts 

syngrapha  is  a  document  bearing  iitris  gentium. 

the    seals   of   both    creditor    and  n.   Olim  enim  non  ita  erat  num- 

debtor  and  is  intrusted  to  a  third  mus:  'for  in  ancient  times  there 

person  for  safe-keeping.  was   no   coined   money,   nor  was 

Emptio  Venditio  :  the  contracts  one  thing  called  a  commodity  and 

arising  consensu,  unlike  those  al-  the    other  a   price.'     Permutatio 

ready    considered,    are    rendered  is  the  exchange  of  one  commodity 

complete  by  the  fact  of  consent  for  another.     Emptio-venditio   is 

alone.     No  specific  form  in  which  the  exchange  of  a  commodity  for  a 

this  consent   is    to  be  expressed  money  price.     The  jurists  decided 

is  required.     For  this  reason  the  after  a  long  controversy  that  per- 

consensual   contracts    are    distin-  mntatio  and  emptio-venditio   are 

guished  from  all  contracts  requir-  two   distinct    kinds   of    contract  : 


ROMAN    LAW  —  14 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

mutabat,  quando  plerumque  evenit,  ut  quod  alteri  superest 
alter!  desit.  Sed  quia  non  semper  nee  facile  concurrebat, 
ut,  cum  tu  haberes  quod  ego  desiderarem,  invicem  haberem 
quod  tu  accipere  velles,  electa  materia  est,  cuius  publica  ac 
5  perpetua  aestimatio  difficultatibus  permutationum  aequali- 
tate  quantitatis  subveniret.  Eaque  materia  forma  publica 
percussa  usum  dominiumque  non  tarn  ex  substantia  praebet 
quam  ex  quantitate,  nee  ultra  merx  utrumque,  sed  alterum 
pretium  vocatur.  Sed  an  sine  nummis  venditio  dici  hodie- 

10  que  possit,  dubitatur,  veluti  si  ego  togam  dedi,  ut  tunicam 
acciperem.  Sabinus  et  Cassius  esse  emptionem  et  vendi- 
tionem  putant ;  Nerva  et  Proculus  permutationem,  non 
emptionem  hoc  esse.  Sed  verier  est  Nervae  et  Proculi 
sententia:  nam  ut  aliud  est  vendere,  aliud  emere,  alius 

15  emptor,  alius  venditor,  sic  aliud  est  pretium,  aliud  merx ; 
quod  in  permutatione  discerni  non  potest,  uter  emptor, 
liter  venditor  sit. 

Emptio  et  venditio  contrahitur,  cum  de  pretio 

Gai.  3-  139 

convenent,  quamvis  nondum  pretium  numera- 

the  former  is  a  contract  re,  aris-  effect  the  alienation  of  the  thing 

ing  from  an  exchange  of  things  sold. 

(permutatio   ex  re   tradita   itii-  5.  aequalitate  quantitatis :  're- 

tium   obligalioni  praebet,    D.    19,  moved  the  difficulty  arising  from 

4,  i,  2)  ;  the   latter  is  a  contract  barter  because  of  the  uniformity 

consensu,    arising    from     an    ex-  of  values  of  coined  money.     The 

change   of  promises    instead    of  material,  given  its  public  character 

things,  whereby  one  party  agrees  by  coinage,  confers  the  right  of 

to  the  future  transfer  of  a  thing  use  and  ownership  not  so  much 

(merx)    after    the    payment    by  from  its  intrinsic  value  as  from  its 

another  of  a  money  price   (pre-  value  as  a  medium  of  exchange; 

tiunt).     Permutatio  or  barter  ef-  and    no   longer  are   both   things 

fects   an  alienation   of   property ;  called    commodities    (merx),   but 

emptio-venditio   does   not,   unless  one  of  them  is  now  called  price  in 

followed    by    another    act,    tra-  money'  (pretiuni). 
ditio,  required  by  Roman  law  to  18.   Emptio  et  venditio  contra 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


turn  sit,  ac  ne  arra  quidem  data  fuerit;  nam  quod  arrae 
nomine  datur,  argumentum  est  emptionis  et  venditionis 
contractae. 

Paul.  D.  Omnium  rerum,  quas  quis  habere  vel  possi- 

5  18,  i,  34,  i       dere  vei  persequi  potest,  venditio  recte  fit ;  quas 

vero  natura  vel  gentium  ius  vel  mores  civitatis  commercio 

exuerunt,   earum   nulla  venditio  est.     Liberum    hominem 

scientes  emere  non  possumus.     Sed  nee  talis  emptio  aut 

stipulatio  admittenda  est ;  'cum  servus  erit,'  quamvis  dixeri- 

10  mus  futuras  res  emi  posse ;  nee  enim  fas  est  eiusmodi 


hitur :  the  contract  of  purchase  and 
sale  is  completed  when  the  price  has 
been  agreed  upon.  An  exchange 
of  promises  thereby  arises  between 
em p tor  and  venditor,  creating  iura 
in  per  sonant ;  but  to  effect  a 
change  of  ownership,  a  second  act 
is  necessary,  namely,  traditio  (de- 
livery}, creating  a  ius  in  rem,  after 
the  price  has  been  paid  and  the 
possession  delivered.  Security  for 
the  price,  or  credit  without  secu- 
rity, is  sufficient  to  make  the  con- 
tract valid  (quod  vendidi  non  aliter 
fit  accipientis,  quam  si  ant  pretium 
nobis  solutum  sit  aut  satis  eo 
nomine  factum  vel  etiam  fidem 
habuerimns  emptori  sine  ulla 
satisfactione,  D.  18,  i,  19). 

i.  ne  arra  quidem  data  fuerit : 
arra  (arr/ia,  arrabo)  was  origi- 
nally a  ring  given  as  a  pledge  or 
earnest  for  the  payment  of  the 
price,  to  be  returned  when  the 
price  had  been  paid  and  the  con- 
tract executed.  The  ring  was  not 
an  essential  part  of  the  completion 


of  the  contract,  but  was  merely 
proof  of  it  (argumentum),  and  was 
especially  retained  in  betrothal 
and  marriage  ceremonies  (cf.  note 
on  Betrothal,  p.  119).  The  party 
breaking  off  the  match  in  sponsalia 
could  be  made  to  pay  twice  the 
amount  of  the  arra  given.  The 
explanation  in  Harper's  Lat.  Diet. 
s.  v.  arra,  from  Isidor.  Orig.  5,  25, 
that  the  arra  was  given  as  part  of 
the  purchase  money  is  probably 
incorrect. 

10.  futuras  res  emi  posse  :  any- 
thing which  could  be  the  subject 
of  private  ownership  (res  in  com- 
mercio') could  be  sold.  The  sale 
of  a  freeman,  wrongly  supposed 
to  be  a  slave,  was  invalid.  The 
parties  must  be  agreed  on  the 
corptts  of  the  thing  sold  (in  cor- 
pore  consensus),  e.g.  the  material 
of  a  commodity,  the  sex  of  a  slave, 
though  the  actual  contents  of  a 
thing  otherwise  definitely  defined 
is  immaterial.  Hence  there  may 
be  an  emptio  rei  futurae  vel  spe- 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 


casus  exspectare.  Item  si  et  emptor  et  venditor  scit  fur- 
tivum  esse  quod  venit,  a  neutra  parte  obligatio  contrahitur ; 
si  emptor  solus  scit,  non  obligabitur  venditor  nee  tamen  ex 
vendito  quicquam  consequitur,  nisi  ultro  quod  convenerit 
5  praestet ;  quod  si  venditor  scit,  emptor  ignoravit,  utrimque 
obligatio  contrahitur,  et  ita  Pomponius  quoque  scribit. 

Pretium  autem  certum  esse  debet :  nam  alio- 

Gai.  3, 140  . 

qum  si  ita  inter  nos  convenerit,  ut  quanti  Titius 
rem  aestimaverit,  tanti  sit  empta,   Labeo  negavit,   ullam 
10  vim  hoc  negotium  habere ;  cuius  opinionem  Cassius  pro- 
bat  :  Ofilius  et  earn  emptionem  et  venditionem  esse  putat ; 
cuius  opinionem  Proculus  secutus  est. 


ratae,  i.e.  of  the  hope  of  uncertain 
profit,  as  so  much  each  for  as  many 
fish  as  may  be  caught,  the  price 
being  governed  according  to  the 
amount  of  gain  acquired  ;  or  there 
may  be  an  emptio  spei,  i.e.  the 
purchase  of  a  thing  hoped  for,  as 
so  much  for  the  chance  of  all  the 
fish  caught  —  though  there  may  be 
no  '  catch '  at  all,  the  price,  how- 
ever, to  be  absolutely  paid  (ali- 
quando  tanien  et  sine  re  venditio 
intellegitur  veluti  cum  quasi  alea 
emitur.  Quod  fit,  cum  captum 
piscium  vel  avium  vel  missilium 
emitur:  emptio  enim  contrahitur 
etiam  si  nihil  incident,  quia  spei 
emptio  est,  D.  18,  I,  8,  i). 

7.  Pretium  autem  certum  esse 
debet:  the  price  must  be  money 
(Pecunia  numerata),  or,  at  least, 
partly  in  money,  and  definite  (cer- 
tum). If  the  determination  of  the 
price  were  left  to  a  third  party, 
Justinian  decided  that  there  was  a 


sale  if  the  party  designated  named 
the  price,  otherwise  the  sale  was 
invalid  (sed  nostra  decisio  ita  hoc 
constituit,  ut  quotiens  sic  composita 
sit  venditio  l  quanti  ille  aestimave- 
ritj  sub  hac  condicione  staret  con- 
tractus,  ut,  si  quidem  ipse  qui 
nominatus  est  pretium  definicrit, 
omnimodo  secundum  ems  aestima- 
tionem  et  pretiiim  persolvatur  et 
res  tradatur,  ut  venditio  ad  ef- 
fectum  perducatur.  Sin  autem 
ille  qui  nominatus  est  vel  noluerit 
vel  non  potuerit  pretium  defitiire, 
tune  pro  nihilo  esse  venditioncm 
quasi  nullo  pretio  statuto,  Inst.  3, 
23,  i).  A  sale  must  be  genuine 
(veruni).  If  there  were  no  inten- 
tion to  demand  the  price,  the  trans- 
action is  not  sale  but  gift.  The 
Romans,  however,  recognized  sale 
for  a  merely  nominal  sum  {venditio 
nummo  und)  as  valid  in  certain 
cases,  e.g.  sale  trans  Tiberim  of 
deserters  from  the  army.  After  - 


SELECTED   TEXTS    FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  3,  23,  3 


Cum  autem  emptio  et  venditio  contracta  sit 
(quod  effici  diximus,  simulatque  de  pretio  con- 
venerit,  cum  sine  scriptura  res  agitur),  periculum  rei  ven- 
ditae  statim  ad  emptorem  pertinet,  tametsi  adhuc  ea  res 

5  emptori  tradita  non  sit.  Itaque  si  homo  mortuus  sit  vel 
aliqua  parte  corporis  laesus  fuerit,  aut  aedes  totae  aut 
aliqua  ex  parte  incendio  consumptae  fuerint,  aut  fundus 
vi  fluminis  totus  vel  aliqua  ex  parte  ablatus  sit,  sive  etiam 
immdatione  aquae  aut  arboribus  turbine  deiectis  longe 

10  minor  aut  deterior  esse  coeperit,  emptoris  damnum  est,  cui 
necesse  est,  licet  rem  non  fuerit  nactus,  pretium  solvere. 
Quidquid  enim  sine  dolo  et  culpa  venditoris  accidit,  in  eo 
venditor  securus  est.  Sed  et  si  post  emptionem  fundo  ali- 


Diocletian,  sale  for  a  price  less 
than  half  the  true  value  of  the 
thing  could  be  rescinded  (minus 
autem  pretium  esse  videtitr,  si  nee 
dimidia  pars  veri  pretii  soluta  sit, 
C.  4,  44,  2). 

3.  periculum  rei  venditae  statim 
ad  emptorem  pertinet :  as  soon  as 
the  parties  have  reached  an  agree- 
ment regarding  the  subject  of  sale 
and  the  price,  all  risk  pertaining  to 
the  thing  sold  (periculum  rei)  and 
right  to  its  profits  (cominodum  ret) 
pass  to  the  buyer  (commodum  eius 
esse  debet,  cuius  periculum  est), 
even  though  the  thing  purchased 
has  not  yet  been  delivered  to  him. 
This  is  true  only  if  the  thing  sold 
is  specific  and  the  price  definitely 
determined,  but  in  the  case  of 
commodities  sold  by  weight,  meas- 
ure, etc.,  since  the  sale  is  not  com- 
plete until  the  weighing,  measuring, 


etc.,  is  performed,  the  risk  is  not 
assumed  by  the  buyer.  If,  how- 
ever, such  things  have  been  sold 
in  mass  (per  aversionem,  '  en 
bloc ')  they  are  at  the  buyer's  risk. 
12.  Quidquid  sine  dolo  et  culpa : 
the  buyer  was  bound  to  pay  the 
price  agreed  upon,  no  matter  what 
happened  to  the  thing  purchased. 
Until  the  payment  of  the  price  and 
the  delivery  of  the  thing,  although 
the  risk  was  the  buyer's,  the  seller 
was  bound  to  bestow  the  highest 
degree  of  diligence  in  preserving 
the  thing  in  his  custody.  He  was 
responsible  not  only  for  dolus  and 
culpa,  but  he  was  also  responsible 
for  culpa  levis,  and  was  bound  to 
bestow  the  care  of  a  good  and  care- 
ful business  man  (custodiam  autem 
venditor  talem  praestare  debet, 
quam  praestant  hi  quibus  res 
commodata  est,  ut  diligentiam 


213 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

quid  per  alluvionem  accessit,  ad  emptoris  commodum  perti- 
net ;  nam  et  commodum  eius  esse  debet,  cuius  periculum  est. 
Quod  si  fugerit  homo  qui  veniit  aut  subreptus  fuerit,  ita  ut 
neque  dolus  neque  culpa  venditoris  interveniat,  animadver- 
5  tendum  erit,  an  custodiam  eius  usque  ad  traditionem  ven- 
ditor  susceperit.  Sane  enim,  si  susceperit,  ad  ipsius 
periculum  is  casus  pertinet ;  si  non  susceperit,  securus  erit 
uip  D.  Et  in  primis  ipsam  rem  praestare  venditorem 

19,  i,  ii,  2       oportet,    id   est   tradere ;    quae   res,    si   quidem 

10  dominus   fuit   venditor,   facit   ct   emptorem    dominum,    si 
non  fuit,  tantum  evictionis  nomine  venditorem  obligat,  si 
modo  pretium  est  numeratum  aut  eo  nomine  satisfactum. 
Ulp  D.  Sive  tota  res  evincatur   sive  pars,   habet   re- 

21,  2,  i  gressum  emptor  in  venditorem. 

15  Res  empta,   mancipatione    et  traditione  per- 

3  fecta,  si  evincatur,  auctoritatis  venditor  duplo 
tenus  obligatur. 

praestet  exactierem,  quam  in  suis  tori  habere  liceaf)  against  evictio, 

rebus  adhiberet,  D.  18,  6,  3)  ;  cf.  i.e.  removal  by  a  third  party  who 

note    on  exactam   and    on    quin,  claimed  a  right  of  ownership  in  the 

p.  203.     A  slave,  being  possessed  whole  thing,  or  a  servitude  or  right 

of  reason,  might  succeed  in  mak-  of  pledge  in  it ;  or  removal  by  any 

ing    his    escape    notwithstanding  one  who  had  a  better  title  to  the 

the    exercise    of    the    degree    of  thing  than  the  seller. 

care  expected  of  a  bonus  paterfa-  16.  auctoritatis  (sc.  actione)  ven- 

milias,  but,  in  this  case,  the  seller  ditor:  the  seller  as  guarantor  of  title 

is  not  liable  for  the  loss  unless  he  was  called  anctor.     In  case  of  the 

has  especially  undertaken  the  cus-  sale  of  a  thing  by  inancipatio,  the 

tody  of  the  slave  in  spite  of  any  usual  action  (auctoritatis  actio),  in 

casus  arising.  case  of  eviction,  was  for  double 

n.   tantum  evictionis  nomine  :  the  price  agreed  upon.     Otherwise 

the  seller  did  not  transfer  ownership  the  buyer  exacted  from  the  seller 

to  the  buyer,  but  possession  or  the  a  promise  (dnplae  stipnlatio )  to  pay 

right  to  enjoyment.    He  was  bound  double  the  price  in  case  of  eviction, 

to  secure  the  buyer  (tit  rem  emp-  in  the  absence  of  other  agreement. 

214 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Ulp.  D. 
21,  2,  37 

Ulp.  D. 

21,  I,  I 


Emptori  duplam  promitti  a  venditore  oportet, 
nisi  aliud  convenit. 

Labeo  scribit  edictum  aedilium  curulium    de 
venditionibus  rerum  esse  tarn  eafum  quae  soli 
5  sint  quam   earum  quae  mobiles  aut  se  moventes.     Aiunt 
aediles :  qui  mancipia  vendunt,  certiores  faciant  emptores, 
quid   morbi   vitiive   cuique    sit,    quis   fugitivus   errove   sit 
noxave  solutus  non  sit ;  eademque  omnia,  cum  ea  mancipia 
venibunt,  palam  recte   pronuntianto.     Quodsi  mancipium 
10  adversus  ea  venisset,  sive  adversus  quod  dictum  promis- 


3.  edictum  aedilium  curulium:  in 
the  absence  of  wilful  fraud  (doltm) 
the  ins  civile  had  held  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  caveat  einptor.  In  the 
case  of  slaves,  however,  owing  to 
fraudulent  sales  arising  from  latent 
defects,  the  aediles  required  that 
the  vendor  be  held  liable  for  defect 
in  the  thing  sold ;  and  warranty  of 
quality  (though  not  of  title)  was 
also  demanded  by  the  aedilician 
edict.  The  buyer  had  the  opti'on 
of  rescinding  the  sale,  completely 
dissolving  the  contract  (actio  red- 
hibitoria,  a  right  of  action  endur- 
ing for  six  months)  ;  or,  if  the 
thing  sold  had  secret  faults,  of 
compelling  the  seller  to  give  com- 
pensation, or  to  reduce  the  price 
(actio  quanti  minoris,  enduring  for 
one  year),  whether  the  faults  were 
not  discoverable  by  the  buyer  or 
were  unknown  to  him,  regardless 
of  the  presence  or  absence  of  dolus 
on  the  part  of  the  seller.  The  ju- 
rists extended  the  principle  intro- 
duced by  the  aediles  in  the  sale  of 


slaves  to  the  sale  of  all  kinds  of 
property.  For  the  edict  of  the 
aedile,  see  Introd.  5. 

6.  mancipia  :     '  slaves  ' ;     erro, 
'  truant '   or   '  loiterer ' ;    fugitivus, 
'  runaway,1  having  no  intention  of 
returning. 

7.  quid  morbi  vitiive  cuique  sit : 
what  the  defects  were   embraced 
by  the  terms  morbtts  vitiumve,  are 
set  forth  at  length  in  the  Digest 
(21,  i).     The  defects  and  infirmi- 
ties admitting  of  rescission  of  the 
sale  (redhibitio)   under  the  edict 
were   as  a  general   rule   physical 
ones.     Faults  of  character  did  not 
vitiate  the  sale  unless  the  vendor 
had  distinctly  denied  them.     Cf. 
above,  fugitivus  errove. 

8.  noxave  solutus  non  sit :  if  the 
slave  had  not  been  cleared  from 
the  legal  consequences  of  any  theft 
or    injuries   which    he   had    com- 
mitted, he  was  liable  to  a  noxal 
surrender  (noxae  deditio)  i.e.  the 
delivery  of  the  slave  to  the  injured 
party  to  atone  for  the  wrong  done. 


2I5 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

sumve  fuisset  cum  veniret,  quod  eius  praestari  oportere 
dicetur,  emptori  omnibusque  ad  quos  ea  res  pertinet 
iudicium  dabimus,  ut  id  mancipium  redhibeatur.  Si  quid 
autem  post  venditionem  traditionemque  deterius  emptoris 
5  opera  familiae  procuratorisve  eius  factum  erit,  sive  quid  ex 
eo  post  venditionem  natum  adquisitum  fuerit,  et  si  quid 
aliud  in  venditione  ei  accesserit,  sive  quid  ex  ea  re  fructus 
pervenerit  ad  emptorem,  ut  ea  omnia  restituat.  Item  si 
quas  accessiones  ipse  praestiterit,  ut  recipiat.  Item  si 

10  quod  mancipium  capitalem  fraudem  admiserit,  mortis  con- 
sciscendae  sibi  causa  quid  fecerit,  inve  harenam  depug- 
nandi  causa  ad  bestias  intromissus  fuerit,  ea  omnia  in 
venditione  pronuntianto ;  ex  his  enim  causis  iudicium  dabi- 
mus. Hoc  amplius  si  quis  adversus  ea  sciens  dolo  malo 

15  vendidisse  dicetur,  iudicium  dabimus. 

uip.  D.  Aediles  aiunt :   qui  iumenta  vendunt,  palam 

21,1,38  recte  dicunto,  quid  in  quoque  eorum  morbi  vitii- 
que  sit,  utique  optime  ornata  vendendi  causa  fuerint,  ita 
emptoribus  tradentur.  Si  quid  ita  factum  non  erit,  de 

i.   quod  eius  praestari  oportere :  arid,  if  it  has  become  enhanced  in 

after  eius  supply  causa.  value,  without  the  buyer's  agency, 

3.  ut  id  mancipium  redhibeatur :  the  thing  shall  be  restored  with  its 

the  aedile  gave  the  buyer  an  action  increase. 

against  the  seller,  requiring  him  16.  qui  iumenta  vendunt :  by  in- 
to take  back  the  thing  sold  and  menta  the  Romans  mean  generally 
refund  the  purchase  money  (red-  horses,  asses,  and  mules,  but  not 
hibere  est  facere,  ttt  rursus  habeat  oxen  and  other  cattle  (boves  magis 
venditor  quod  habuerit,  et  quia  '  ar  mentor  um '  quain  '  iumento- 
reddendo  id  fiebat,  idcirco  redhibi-  rum  '  generis  appellantur,  D.  50, 
tio  est  appellata  quasi  reditio,  D.  16,  89;  unde  dubitari  desiit,  an 
21,  I,  21).  hoc  edicto  boves  quoque  con tinea n- 

8>    ut  ea  omnia  restituat :  i.e.  the  tur  ;  etenim  iumentoritm  appella- 

buyer  shall  restore  the  thing  in  its  tione  non  contineri  eos  verius  est, 

original  condition,  if  it  has  dete-  sed  pecoris  appellatione   c,mtine- 

riorated  while  in  his  possession;  buntur,  D.  21,  I,  38,  6). 

216 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

ornamentis  restituendis  iumentisve  ornamentorum  nomine 
redhibendis  in  diebus  sexaginta,  morbi  autem  vitiive  causa 
inemptis  faciendis  in  sex  mensibus,  vel  quo  minoris  cum 
venirent  fuerint,  in  anno  iudicium  dabimus. 
5  uip.  D.  Causa  huius  edicti  proponendi  est,  ut  occurra- 

21,  i,  2  j-ur  fallaciis  vendentium  et  emptoribus  sucurratur, 

quicumque  decepti  a  venditoribus  fuerint;  dummodo  scia- 
mus  venditorem,  etiamsi  ignoravit  ea  quae  aediles  praestari 
iubent,  tamen  teneri  debere.  Nee  est  hoc  iniquum,  potuit 
10  enim  ea  nota  habere  venditor ;  neque  enim  interest  emptoris, 
cur  fallatur,  ignorantia  venditoris  an  calliditate. 

HIRE  {Locatio  Conductio) 
Locatio  et  conductio  proxima  est  emptioni  et 

Inst.  3,24,pr.  ,.....,  .  ,.  . 

venditioni    isdemque    inns    regulis    consistunt. 

Nam   ut  emptio  et   venditio  ita  contrahitur,  si  de  pretio 

15  convenerit,  sic  etiam  locatio  et  conductio  ita  contrahi  intel- 

legitur,   si  merces   constituta   sit.       Et  competit   locatori 

quidem  locati  actio,  conductor!  vero  conduct!. 

12.  Locatio  et  conductio :  the  of  one's  services  in  consideration 
contract  of  letting  and  hiring  is  like  of  a  money  payment,  e.g.  service  of 
that  of  buying  and  selling  in  that  employees,  domestic  servants,  day 
it  is  perfect  as  soon  as  the  parties  laborers,  etc.  (operae  meaning  here 
have  agreed  upon  the  object  and  '  unskilled  labor,1  operae  illibe- 
the  rent  or  wages  (inerces)  to  be  rales}  ;  locatio  conductio  operis 
paid.  The  merces  is  as  essential  (gen.  of  opus),  or  a  contract 
to  this  contract  as  the  pretium  to  whereby  one  party  agrees  to  sup- 
trie  contract  of  sale.  Of  locatio  ply  another,  in  consideration  of  a 
conductio  there  are  three  varieties  :  money  payment,  with  the  product 
locatio  conductio  rei,  or  a  contract  or  result  of  labor  or  service  (operis 
for  the  use  of  a  thing  in  considera-  faciendi),  e.g.  manufacture,  re- 
tion  of  a  money  payment ;  locatio  pairs,  transportation  of  goods  or 
conductio  operarum,  or  a  letting  passengers,  etc. 

217 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Adeo  autem  emptio  et  venditio  et  locatio  et 
conductio  familiaritatem  aliquam  inter  se  habere 
videntur,  ut  in  quibusdam  causis  quaeri  soleat,  utrum  emp- 
tio et  venditio  contrahatur  an  locatio  et  conductio ;  veluti 
5  si  qua  res  in  perpetuum  locata  sit,  quod  evenit  in  praediis 
municipum,  quae  ea  lege  locantur,  ut  quamdiu  id  vectigal 
praestetur,  neque  ipsi  conductori  neque  heredi  eius  prae- 
dium  auferatur;   sed   magis    placuit    locationem   conduc- 
tionemque   esse.       Item    quaeritur,    si   cum    aurifice  mihi 

10  convenerit,  ut  is  ex  auro  suo  certi  ponderis  certaeque 
formae  anulos  mihi  faceret,  et  acciperet  verbi  gratia  dena- 
rios  CC,  utrum  emptio  et  venditio  an  locatio  et  conductio 
contrahatur.  Cassius  ait,  materiae  quidem  emptionem  ven- 
ditionemque  contrahi,  operarum  autem  locationem  et  con- 

15  ductionem ;  sed  plerisque  placuit,  emptionem  et  venditi- 
onem  contrahi;  atqui  si  meum  aurum  ei  dedero,  mercede 
pro  opera  constituta,  convenit,  locationem  conductionem 
contrahi. 

Conductor   omnia   secundum   legem    conduc- 

20  tionis  facere  debet  et,  si  quid  in  lege  praetermis- 

5.   res  in  perpetuum  locata  sit :  by  the   popnlus    Romanus  were 

'as  if  property  were  leased  in  perpet-  called  stipendiaria  ;  those  owned 

uity,  as  happens  in  case  of  the  lands  by  the  emperor,  tributaria.     For 

of  municipalities,  which  are  leased  the  character  of  these  long  leases 

on  the  condition  that,  as  long  as  (res  in  perpetuum  locata)  in  the 

the  rent  shall  be  paid,1  etc.  —  the  time  of  Justinian,  see  Class.  Diet. 

reference  is  to  ager  vccti'galis,  or  article  Emphyteusis. 
land  leased  by  the  populus  Ro-  20.  si  quid  in  lege  praetermissum 

mantis  or  the  municipia,  for  a  fixed  fuerit :  in  the  absence  of  special 

rental  either  in  cash  or  produce.  agreement    to    the    contrary,   the 

See  note  on  Fitndus,  Ager,  p.  161.  hirer  is  bound  to  do  all  that  is 

The  tribute  paid  by  provincial  land  fairly  and  reasonably  expected  of 

was    called    vectigal,   stipendiujn,  him.     Cf.  note  on  exactam  diligen- 

and    tributum.      Praedia    owned  tiain,  p.  203. 

218 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE  ROMAN   LAW 

sum  fuerit,  id  ex  bono  et  aequo  debet  praestare.  Qui  pro 
usu  aut  vestimentorum  aut  argenti  aut  iumenti  mercedem 
aut  cledit  aut  promisit,  ab  eo  custodia  talis  desideratur, 
qualem  diligentissimus  pater  familias  suis  rebus  adhibet. 
5  Quam  si  praestiterit  et  aliquo  casu  rem  amiserit,  de  resti- 
tuenda  ea  non  tenebitur.  Mortuo  conductore  intra  tem- 
pora  conductionis  heres  eius  eodem  iure  in  conductionem 
succedit. 
uip.  D.  Qui  impleto  tempore  conductionis  remansit  in 

10  J9,  2. 13,  "  conductione,  non  solum  reconduxisse  videbitur, 
sed  etiam  pignora  videntur  durare  obligata. 

Quod  autem  diximus,  taciturnitate  utriusque  partis 
colonum  reconduxisse  videri,  ita  accipiendum  est,  ut  in 
ipso  anno,  quo  tacuerunt,  videantur  eandem  locationem 

15  renovasse,  non  etiam  in  sequentibus  annis,  etsi  lustrum 
forte  ab  initio  fuerat  conduction!  praestitutum.  Sed  et  si 
secundo  quoque  anno  post  finitum  lustrum  nihil  fuerit  con- 
trarium  actum,  eandem  videri  locationem  in  illo  anno  per- 
mansisse ;  hoc  enim  ipso,  quo  tacuerunt,  consensisse 

20  videntur.     Et  hoc  deinceps  in  unoquoque  anno  observan- 

5.  aliquo  casu  rem  amiserit :  the  i.e.  by  the  silence  of  either  party  to 

liability  of  the  parties  as  regards  the  contract  (locator  or  conductor). 

risk  arising  from  fortuitous  loss  Colonus  here  means  the  lessee  or 

(casus)  is  different  in  sale  and  tenant  of  rural  land.  The  tenant 

hire.  In  the  former  contract,  the  of  urban  houses  and  land  is  called 

risk  (periculutH  rei)  falls  upon  inquilinus.  The  usual  Roman 

the  buyer,  in  the  latter  upon  the  lease  of  land  was  for  a  term  of  five 

letter  (locator),  who,  being  the  years  (lustrum).  Colonus  in  the 

real  owner  of  the  thing,  suffers  meaning  of  the  text  should  be  dis- 

the  loss  according  to  the  usual  tinguished  from  the  coloni  who 

rule  '  res  perit  domino.''  But  see,  composed  a  large  part  of  the  agri- 

for  sale,  note  on  periculum  rei  cultural  population  of  the  later 

venditae,  p.  213.  Roman  empire.  See  Class.  Diet. 

12.    utriusque   partis  colonum:  articles  Colonus  and  Colonatus. 

2  19 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


dum  est.  In  urbanis  autem  praediis  alio  iure  utimur,  ut, 
prout  quisque  habitaverit,  ita  et  obligetur,  nisi  in  scriptis 
certum  tempus  conductioni  comprehensum  est. 

SOCIETAS  (Partners hip) 


Inst.  3,  25 


Societatem  coire    solemus  aut  totorum  bono- 
5  rum,  quam  Graeci  specialiter  KOUHnrpa£fav  appel- 

lant, aut  unius  alicuius  negotiationis,  veluti  mancipiorum 
emendorum    vendendorumque,    aut    olei,    vini,    frumenti 


Societas :  societas  is  a  contract 
whereby  two  or  more  persons  agree 
to  combine  their  property  or  labor 
for  a  common  profit ;  or  to  acquire 
and  hold  property  in  common, 
sharing  the  profits  and  losses  in  like 
or  unlike  proportions.  The  essence 
of  this  contract  is  combination  for 
the  purpose  of  gain,  and  the  con- 
tract is  perfected  by  consent.  The 
combination  may  be  one  of  capital 
or  of  labor,  or  of  both  capital  and 
labor.  There  can  be  no  societas 
in  which  one  party  is  entirely 
excluded  from  some  share  of  the 
gain.  Such  an  arrangement  would 
partake  more  of  the  nature  of  a 
gift  (donationis  causa  societas  recte 
non  contrahitur),  and  the  jurists 
called  it  a  societas  leonina.  since 
the  favored  partner  received  the 
lion's  share  (the  name  being  de- 
rived from  the  lion  of  the  fable, 
which  deprived  its  weaker  com- 
panions in  the  hunt  of  their  share 
of  the  game).  There  are  several 
varieties  of  partnership,  according 
to  the  purpose  and  intent  of  the 


parties  entering  into  this  relation. 
They  may  combine  all  their  pos- 
sessions, present  and  subsequently 
acquired,  including  gifts,  inherit- 
ances, legacies,  etc.,  into  a  common 
stock  {societas  universorum  bono- 
runi)  ;  or  a  partnership  may  be 
formed  to  carry  on  a  particular 
and  continuous  business,  or  it  may 
embrace  everything  acquired  by 
business  transactions,  though  con- 
fined strictly  to  business  matters 
(universoriDii  quae  ex-  quaestu 
vemiinf),  and  hence  not  including 
gifts,  inheritances,  legacies,  and 
the  like  {societas  negotiationis  ali- 
cuius}. Societas  -vectigalis,  men- 
tioned in  the  text,  is  an  example 
of  this  class,  but  it  was  unlike 
other  business  partnerships  of  this 
variety,  in  that  it  was  governed  by 
special  rules,  cf.  D.  17,  2,  59.  Or 
there  may  be  a  partnership  for  a 
particular,  single  transaction  (so- 
cietas  ret  unius),  as  for  the  man- 
agement or  sale  of  a  piece  of  land, 
slave,  etc.  In  the  absence  of 'well- 
expressed  intentions  to  the  con- 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

emendi  vendendique.  Et  quidem  si  nihil  de  partibus  lucri 
et  damni  nominatim  convenerit,  aequales  scilicet  partes  et  in 
lucro  et  in  dam  no  spectantur.  Quod  si  expressae  fuerint 
partes,  hae  servari  debent;  nee  enim  umquam  dubium 
5  fuit,  quin  valeat  conventio,  si  duo  inter  se  pacti  sunt,  ut  ad 
unum  quidem  duae  partes  et  damni  et  lucri  pertineant,  ad 
alium  tertia.  De  ilia  sane  conventione  quaesitum  est, 
si  Titius  et  Seius  inter  se  pacti  sunt,  ut  ad  Titium  lucri 
duae  partes  pertineant,  damni  tertia,  ad  Seium  duae  partes 

10  damni,  lucri  tertia,  an  rata  debet  haberi  conventio?  Quin- 
tus  Mucius  contra  naturam  societatis  talem  pactionem  esse 
existimavit  et  ob  id  non  esse  ratam  habendam.  Servius 
Sulpicius,  cuius  sententia  praevaluit,  contra  sentit,  quia 
saepe  quorundam  ita  pretiosa  est  opera  in  societate,  ut 

15  eos  iustum  sit  meliore  condicione  in  societatem  admitti ; 
nam  et  ita  coiri  posse  societatem  non  dubitatur,  ut  alter 
pecuniam  conferat,  alter  non  conferat  et  tamen  lucrum 
inter  eos  commune  sit,  quia  saepe  opera  alicuius  pro 
pecunia  valet.  Et  adeo  contra  Quinti  Mucii  sententiam 

20  obtinuit,  ut  illud  quoque  constiterit  posse  convenire,  ut 
quis  lucri  partem  ferat,  damno  non  teneatur,  quod  et  ipsum 

trary,  societas  is  presumed  by  law  the  shares  of  gain  and  loss  may  be 

to  relate  to  business  matters  and  unequal  (societas  autem  coiri potest 

to  the  gains  and  losses  ordinarily  et  valet  etiain  inter  eos,  qui  non 

arising  therefrom.     Gain  accruing,  sunt  aequis  facultatibus,  cum  ple- 

therefore,  from  private  or  family  rumque  patiperior  opera  suppleat, 

relations  of  a  partner,  such  as  gifts,  quantum   ei  per    comparationem 

inheritances,  legacies,  is  ordinarily  patrimonii  deest,  D.  17,  2,  5,  i). 

excluded  from    the   terms  of  the  In  the  absence  of  special  agree- 

contract  of  societas.  ment,    the    partners    share    both 

i.    Et  quidem  si  nihil:  just  as  gain  and  loss  alike.     If  the  pro- 

the  contributions  to  the  partnership  portion  of  gain  is  determined  in 

may  be  of  unequal  shares,  and  of  the  case  of  either  partner,  he  suf- 

different    kind   and   character,  so  fers  losses  in  the  same  proportion. 


221 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Servius  convenienter  sibi  existimavit ;  quod  tamen  ita 
intellegi  oportet,  ut,  si  in  aliqua  re  lucrum,  in  aliqua  dam- 
num  allatum  sit,  compensatione  facta  solum  quod  superest 
intellegatur  lucri  esse.  Illud  expeditum  est,  si  in  una 
5  causa  pars  fuerit  expressa,  veluti  in  solo  lucro  vel  in  solo 
damno,  in  altera  vero  omissa,  in  eo  quoque  quod  praeter- 
missum  est  eandem  partem  servari.  Manet  autem  societas 
eo  usque,  donee  in  eodem  consensu  perseveraverint ;  at 
cum  aliquis  renuntiaverit  societati,  solvitur  societas.  Sed 

10  plane  si  quis  callide  in  hoc  renuntiaverit  societati,  ut  ob- 
veniens  aliquod  lucrum  solus  habeat,  veluti  si  totorum 
bonorum  socius,  cum  ab  aliquo  heres  esset  relictus,  in  hoc 
renuntiaverit  societati,  ut  hereditatem  solus  lucrifaceret, 
cogitur  hoc  lucrum  communicare ;  si  quid  vero  aliud 

15  lucrifaceret,  quod  non  captaverit,  ad  ipsum  solum  per- 
tinet :  ei  vero,  cui  renuntiatum  est,  quidquid  omnino  post 
renuntiatam  societatem  adquiritur,  soli  conceditur.  Solvi- 
tur adhuc  societas  etiam  morte  socii,  quia  qui  societatem 
contrahit  certam  personam  sibi  eligit.  Sed  et  si  consensu 

20  plurium  societas  coita  sit,  morte  unius  socii  solvitur,  etsi 

3.    compensatione    facta  :      al-  upon  ;  by  agreement  (dhsensus)  ; 

though  there  might  be  a  societas  in  by  withdrawal  of  either  party  (re- 

which  one  partner  shared  in  the  gain  nnntiatio),  unless  to  defraud;  by 

but  not  in  the  loss,  nevertheless  this  death  (except  in  case  of  societas 

was  understood  to  mean  the  net  vectigalis)  ;  by  capitis  demimitio ; 

gain,  after  the  balance  had  been  by  bankruptcy  (mole  debiti  prae- 

struck  between  profit  and  loss  in  gravatus,    cessio    bonorunt)  ;     by 

the  various  transactions  (compen-  confiscation  (publicatio)  ;  by  the 

satione  facta  solum  quod  superest  actio  pro  socio. 
lucri) .  15.   quod  non  captaverit : '  wh  ich 

9.    solvitur    societas:     societas  he  has  not  sought   to  take  with 

may  be  dissolved :  by  completion  secret  motive.' 
of  the  business  (finis  negotid)  ;  by  20.    morte  unius  socii  solvitur : 

expiration     of    the    term    agreed  since  the  relation  entered  into  by 

222 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE  ROMAN   LAW 

plures  supersint,  nisi  si  in  coeunda  societate  aliter  con- 
venerit.  Item  si  alicuius  rei  contracta  societas  sit  et  finis 
negotio  impositus  est,  finitur  societas.  Publicatione  quo- 
que  distrahi  societatem  manifestum  est,  scilicet  si  universa 

5  bona  socii  publicentur ;  nam  cum  in  eius  locum  alius  suc- 
cedit,  pro  mortuo  habetur.  Item  si  quis  ex  sociis  mole 
debiti  praegravatus  bonis  suis  cesserit  et  ideo  propter  pub- 
lica  aut  propter  privata  debita  substantia  eius  veneat,  sol- 
vitur  societas.  Sed  hoc  casu  si  adhuc  consentiant  in 

10  societatem,  nova  videtur  incipere  societas.  Socius  socio 
utrum  eo  nomine  tantum  teneatur  pro  socio  actione,  si 
quid  dolo  commiserit,  sicut  is  qui  deponi  apud  se  passus 


societas  is  purely  personal,  the  death 
of  any  one  of  the  several  partners 
dissolves  the  partnership,  unless 
otherwise  agreed  at  the  time  of  its 
formation. 

5.  in  eius  locum  alius  succedit : 
publicatio  (confiscatio)  is  a  confis- 
cation (publicare,  to  make  any- 
thing a  res  publica)  or  seizure  of 
one's  property  by  the  aerarium  or 
fiscus,  which  carried  with  it  a 
deminutio  capitis  or  civil  death 
{pro  mortuo  habetur).  In  this 
case,  the  treasury  of  the  state  or 
fiscus  became  the  partner's  suc- 
cessor (damnatione  bona  publi- 
cantur,  cum  aut  vita  adimitur  aut 
civitas,  aut  servilis  condicio  irroga- 
tur,  D.  48,  20,  i). 

7.  bonis  suis  cesserit :  cessiobono- 
runti  a  debtor's  voluntary  surren- 
der of  his  estate  to  his  creditors, 
was  an  institution  introduced  by  a 
lex  lulia  (under  Caesar  or  Augus- 


tus) rendering  the  ordinary  debtor 
exempt  from  personal  execution, 
infamy,  and  any  degradation  of 
status.  The  insolvent  debtor, 
however,  suffered  from  his  insol- 
vency in  both  political  and  private 
rights  (iura  publica.  iura  privatd), 
the  former  being  entirely  lost,  the 
latter  being  seriously  affected 
(especially  ius  commercit).  In- 
famia,  or  the  loss  of  privi- 
leges and  reputation  (existimatio~) 
usually  caused  by  insolvency, 
might  be  averted  by  cessio  ho- 
nor um. 

n.  pro  socio  actione :  the  rights 
and  duties  of  partners,  one  with 
another,  are  enforced  by  the  act  to 
pro  socio,  which  carries  with  it  the 
infamia  of  the  defaulting  party. 
A  socius  is  liable  for  dolus  and  for 
any  loss  arising  from  negligence 
due  to  a  degree  of  diligence  less 
than  he  is  in  the  habit  of  bestow- 


223 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

est,  an  etiam  culpae,  id  est  desidiae  atque  negligentiae 
nomine,  quaesitum  est ;  praevaluit  tamen  etiam  culpae 
nomine  teneri  eum.  Culpa  autem  non  ad  exactissimam 
diligentiam  dirigenda  est ;  sufficit  enim  talem  diligentiam 
5  in  communibus  rebus  adhibere  socium,  qualem  suis  rebus 
adhibere  solet.  Nam  qui  parum  diligentem  socium  sibi 
adsumit,  de  se  queri  debet. 

uip.  D.  Aristo  refert  Cassium  respondisse  societatem 

17,  2,  29,  2      talem  coiri  non  posse,  ut  alter  lucrum  tantum, 

10  alter  damnum  sentiret,  et  hanc  societatem  leoninam  solitum 
appellare ;  et  nos  consentimus  talem  societatem  nullam 
esse,  ut  alter  lucrum  sentiret,  alter  vero  nullum  lucrum, 
sed  damnum  sentiret ;  iniquissimum  enim  genus  societatis 
est,  ex  qua  quis  damnum,  non  etiam  lucrum  spectet. 

X5  uip.  D.  Societates    contrahuntur     sive     universorum 

17.2,5  bonorum    sive   negotiationis  alicuius  sive  vecti- 

galis  sive  etiam  rei  unius. 

MANDATVM 

Paui.D.  Obligatio    mandati    consensu   contrahentium 

17. i. 1  consistit.     Ideo    per   nuntium    quoque  vel   per 

20  epistulam  mandatum  suscipi  potest.     Item  sive  '  rogo '  sive 

'  volo  '  sive  '  mando  '  sive  alio  quocumque  verbo  scripserit, 

ing  on  his  own  business  affairs  taking  without  remuneration.  The 
(so-called  culpa  levis  in  concreto,  absence  of  pay  or  reward  is  essen- 
see  note  on  exactam,  p.  203).  tial  to  this  contract,  otherwise  it 
Mandatum :  mandatiitn  is  a  con-  became  a  locatio  conductio  opera- 
tract  by  which  one  person  intrusts  ruin.  The  person  giving  the 
the  performance  of  some  commis-  commission  is  called  the  mandator 
sion  or  the  management  of  some  (niatidans,  sometimes  denarius), 
business  to  another,  the  latter,  by  the  one  by  whom  it  is  undertaken, 
his  acceptance,  binding  himself  to  themandatee  (i/iandatariiis, some- 
fat  proper  execution  of  the  under-  times  procurator) .  The  contract 

224 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


mandati  actio  est.  Item  mandatum  et  in  diem  differri  et 
sub  condicione  contrahi  potest.  Mandatum  nisi  gratuitum 
nullum  est ;  nam  originem  ex  officio  atque  amicitia  trahit, 
contrarium  ergo  est  officio  merces ;  interveniente  enim  pe- 

5  cunia  res  ad  locationem  et  conductionem  potius  respicit. 
uip.  D.  Si  remunerandi  gratia  honor  intervenit,  erit 

17- 1, 6,  pr.       mandati  actio. 

Gai.  D.  Mandatum  inter  nos  contrahitur,  sive  mea  tan- 

J7- 1.  2  turn  gratia  tibi  mandem  sive  aliena  tantum  sive 

10  mea  et  aliena  sive  mea  et  tua  sive  tua  et  aliena.    Quod  si  tua 
tantum  gratia  tibi  mandem,  supervacuum  est  mandatum  et 


of  mandatum  may  be  entered  into 
by  expressing  the  consent  orally, 
by  letter,  or  by  message  ;  or  it  may 
be  inferred  from  circumstances  and 
the  acts  of  the  parties  (rebus  ipsis 
et  factis*).  It  may  be  made  to 
take  effect  at  a  certain  day  (in 
diem  differri)  or  it  may  be  condi- 
tional (sub  condidione~) . 

3.  originem  ex  officio :  the  repre- 
sentation of  one  person  by  another, 
agency  or  the  legal  relation  of 
principal  and  agent,  was  only 
slightly  recognized  by  Roman  law. 
In  all  contracts,  the  person  actu- 
ally participating  in  making  the 
agreement,  whether  by  words  or  by 
any  other  formalities  required  by 
law,  was  the  one  bound.  He  con- 
tracted for  himself  and  to  him 
accrued  the  rights  and  duties 
growing  out  of  the  contractual 
relation.  In  the  early  law,  the 
responsibility  of  entering  into  and 
executing  a  contract  might  be  be- 
stowed upon  a  trusted  friend.  The 

ROMAN    LAW  —  1$  22$ 


proper  execution  of  this  trust  was 
then  compelled  not  by  law  but  by 
a  sense  of  duty  (officiuni)  and 
friendship.  The  act  or  manner 
of  making  the  promise  was  accom- 
panied by  due  formalities  and  the 
commission  was  solemnly  in- 
trusted to  the  hand  of  another 
(inanu-datutti) .  For  a  good  ex- 
ample of  this  formality  see  Plau- 
tus,  Capt.  442-445  :  Tyn.  Haec 
per  dexter  am  tuam,  etc.  .  .  .  Ph. 
Mandasti  satis.  Since  mandalum 
grew  out  of  a  relation  of  mere 
friendship,  it  was  necessarily  gra- 
tuitous, and,  although  a  present  or 
honorarium  (also  salariuiii)  might 
be  given  by  way  of  friendship,  or 
otherwise,  e.g.  to  advocates,  physi- 
cians, dentists,  copyists,  teachers, 
etc.,  it  could  not  be  made  the  sub- 
ject of  an  action,  except  by  an 
extra  ordinem  process  (extraordi- 
naria  cogntiio).  Professors  of  law 
and  philosophy  could  not  maintain 
an  action  for  recovery  of  fees,  even 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

ob  id  nulla  ex  eo  obligatio  nascitur.  Mea  tantum  gratia  in- 
tervenit  mandatum,  veluti  si  tibi  mandem,  ut  negotia  mea 
geras  vel  ut  fundum  mihi  emeres  vel  ut  pro  me  fideiubeas. 
Aliena  tantum,  veluti  si  tibi  mandem,  ut  Titii  negotia  ge- 
5  reres  vel  ut  fundum  ei  emeres  vel  ut  pro  eo  fideiubeas. 
Mea  et  ali.ena,  veluti  si  tibi  mandem,  ut  mea  et  Titii  negotia 
gereres  vel  ut  mihi  et  Titio  fundum  emeres  vel  ut  pro  me 
et  Titio  fideiubeas.  Tua  et  mea,  veluti  si  mandem  tibi,  ut 
sub  usuris  crederes  ei,  qui  in  rem  meam  mutuaretur.  Tua 

10  et  aliena,  veluti  si  tibi  mandem,  ut  Titio  sub  usuris  cre- 
deres ;  quod  si,  ut  sine  usuris  crederes  aliena  tantum  gratia 
intervenit  mandatum.  Tua  autem  gratia  intervenit  manda- 
tum, veluti  si  mandem  tibi,  ut  pecunias  tuas  potius  in  emp- 
tiones  praediorum  colloces  quam  faeneres,  vel  ex  diverso 

15  ut  faeneres  potius  quam  in  emptiones  praediorum  colloces ; 
cuius  generis  mandatum  magis  consilium  est  quam  man- 
datum et  ob  id  non  est  obligatorium,  quia  nemo  ex 
consilio  obligatur,  etiamsi  non  expediat  ei  cui  dabatur, 
quia  liberum  est  cuique  apud  se  explorare,  an  expediat 

20  sibi  consilium. 

extra  ordinem.    Mandainm  never  ger  of  a  business  or  shop  (institor, 

developed  completely  into  the  mod-  actio  institoria)   who  could  bind 

ern  idea  of  principal  and  agent,  his  employer, 
whereby  the  acts  of  an  agent  bring  3.   fideiubeas  : '  if  you  should  bid 

his  principal  directly  into  binding  it  be  done  on  your  guaranty.1  Fide- 

legal   relation  with   third   parties.  inhere   (fideiussio)   was   to  enter 

Representation  was  recognized  in  into  a  contract  by  which  a  person 

Roman  law  in  the  case  of  serviin  bound  himself  as  surety  for  another 

dominica  potestate,filiifaimlias  in  in  any  kind  of  an  obligation  (real, 

patria  fiotestate,  and  the  praetor  verbal,  literal,  consensual,  civil,  or 

gave  actions  in  the  case  of  a  ship-  natural).    His  liability  was  for  the 

master  (inagisterna-vis)  who  could  full   amount,  whether  there  were 

bind  his  employer  (exercitor,  actio  other  fideiussores  or  not,  and  was 

exercitoria),  and  in  case  of  a  mana-  inherited  by  his  heir.     Gai.  3,  1 19. 

226 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Gai.  D.  Qui  mandatum  suscepit,  si  potest  id  explere, 

17,  i,  27, 2  deserere  promissum  officium  non  debet,  alioquin 
quanti  mandatoris  intersit  damnabitur ;  si  vero  intellegit 
explere  se  id  officium  non  posse,  id  ipsum  cum  primum 
5  poterit  debet  mandatori  nuntiare,  ut  is  si  velit  alterius 
opera  utatur ;  quod  si,  cum  possit  nuntiare,  cessaverit, 
quanti  mandatoris  intersit  tenebitur;  si  aliqua  ex  causa 
non  poterit  nuntiare,  securus  erit.  Morte  quoque  eius  cui 
mandatum  est,  si  is  integro  adhuc  mandato  decesserit,  sol- 

10  vitur  mandatum  et  ob  id  heres  eius,  licet  exsecutus  fuerit 
mandatum,  non  habet  mandati  actionem.  Impendia  man- 
dati  exsequendi  gratia  facta  si  bona  fide  facta  sunt,  restitui 
omnimodo  debent,  nee  ad  rem  pertinet,  quod  is  qui  man- 
dasset  potuisset,  si  ipse  negotium  gereret,  minus  impendere. 

1S  Paul.  D.  Voluntatis  est  enim  suscipere  mandatum,  ne- 

13.  6, 17,3  cessitatis  consummare. 


3.  quanti  mandatoris  intersit: 
the  mandatee  is  bound  by  his  con- 
tract to  compensate  the  mandator 
for  i  quanti  ea  res  est]  or  all  damage 
which  the  latter  has  sustained  as 
a  consequence  of  the  former's  non- 
performance.  This  is  called  the 
creditor's  i  interesse."1 

9.  solvitur  mandatum :  a  man- 
datum may  be  dissolved  by  death 
of  either  party ;  by  recall  on  the 
part  of  the  mandator,  while  the 
matter  is  untouched  (Integra  re)  ; 
by  timely  renunciation  on  the  part 
of  the  mandatee,  grounds  being 
sufficient,  which  are  said  by  Paulus, 
2,  15,  to  be  :  ob  subitam  valet 'udi- 
netn,  ob  necessariam  peregrina- 
tionem,  ob  inimicitiam  et  inanes 


ret  actiones  Integra  adhuc  causa 
mandati  negotio  remmtiari  potest. 
10.  heres  non  habet  mandati 
actionem :  since  the  obligation  aris- 
ing from  the  contract  dimandatum 
is  purely  personal  to  the  parties,  it 
cannot  be  inherited.  Furthermore, 
since  in  this  case,  mandato  integro, 
the  mandatee  being  dead,  the  obli- 
gation could  not  begin  with  an 
heir.  Mandatum  gives  rise  to  two 
actions,  directa  and  contraria. 
The  mandator  has  an  action 
against  the  mandatee  (actio  man- 
dati directa)  by  which  the  latter's 
duty  to  due  performance  is  se- 
cured. The  mandatee  has  a 
counter  action  (actio  mandati  con- 
traria) by  which  he  sues  for  the 


227 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  3,  27 


OBLIGATIONS  QVASI  EX  CONTRACTV 

Post  genera  contractuum  enumerata  dispicia- 
mus  etiam  de  his  obligationibus,  quae  non  pro- 
prie  quidem  ex  contractu  nasci  intelleguntur,  sed  tamen, 
quia  non  ex  maleficio  substantiam  capiunt,  quasi  ex  con- 
5  tractu  nasci  videntur.  Igitur  cum  quis  absentis  negotia 
gesserit,  ultro  citroque  inter  eos  nascuntur  actiones,  quae 
appellantur  negotiorum  gestorum  ;  sed  domino  quidem  rei 
gestae  adversus  eum  qui  gessit  directa  competit  actio,  ne- 


recovery  of  expenses  incurred  (im- 
pendia  mandati  exsequendi)  and 
any  loss  to  himself  arising  from 
the  neglect  of  the  mandator.  Each 
of  these  actions  branded  the  con- 
demned party  with  infamia.  Both 
parties  must  do  all  required  by 
bona  fides  and  must  display  omnis 
diligentia,  being  liable  for  culpa 
levis  (in  abstracto}. 

Obligations  quasi  ex  Contractu : 
cf.  note  on  quasi,  p.  200.  These  are 
special  obligations  not  classified 
under  any  of  the  four  divisions  of 
contracts  already  given.  They  are 
similar  to  contractual  obligations, 
in  that  they  may  be  enforced  by 
legal  actions.  They  do  not,  how- 
ever, arise  by  agreement,  but  from 
facts  or  circumstances  which  bind 
two  persons  together  by  duties  re- 
sembling those  growing  out  of 
contract.  They  were,  therefore, 
called  by  the  jurists,  quasi  ex  con- 
tractu. They  have  been  well 
described  as  creating  rights  in 
personam  without  the  consent  of 


the  persons  bound.  While  rights 
in  personam  arising  from  consent 
are  contracts,  rights  in  personam 
arising  from  operation  of  law  are 
quasi  contracts  (Hunter).  They 
should  not  be  confused  with  im- 
plied contracts  (actio  in  factnm, 
praescriptis  verbis, '  action  on  the 
case '). 

5.  negotia  gesserit :  negotiorum 
gestio  is  the  voluntary  and  gratui- 
tous undertaking  of  another's 
business,  for  the  preservation  of 
property  and  protection  of  an- 
other's interests  during  his  absence. 
The  obligation  is  similar  to  that 
arising  from  mand<itum.  It  differs 
from  mandatum,  however,  in  that 
it  is  not  a  consensual  contract,  but 
arises  from  the  fact  of  undertaking 
to  serve  the  interests  of  another. 
The  duties  of  the  persons  bound 
may  be  enforced  by  two  actions 
(idtro  citroque),  the  actio  negotio- 
rum gestortun  directa  and  con- 
traria.  The  former  may  be 
maintained  by  the  dominus  negotii 


228 


SELECTED   TEXTS   EROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

gotiornm  autem  gestori  contraria.  Quas  ex  nullo  contractu 
proprie  nasci  manifestum  est ;  quippe  ita  nascuntur  istae 
actiones,  si  sine  mandate  quisque  alienis  negotiis  gerendis 
se  optulerit ;  ex  qua  causa  ii  quorum  negotia  gesta  fuerint 

5  etiam  ignorantes  obligantur.  Idque  utilitatis  causa  recep- 
tum  est,  ne  absentium,  qui  subita  festinatione  coacti  nulli 
demandata  negotiorum  s.uorum  administratione  peregre  pro- 
f  ecti  essent,  desererentur  negotia  :  quae  sane  nemo  curatu- 
rus  esset,  si  de  eo  quod  quis  impendisset  nullam  habiturus 

10  esset  actionem.  Sicut  autem  is  qui  utiliter  gesserit  negotia 
habet  obligatum  dominum  negotiorum,  ita  et  contra  iste 
quoque  tenetur,  ut  administrationis  rationem  reddat.  Quo 
casu  ad  exactissimam  quisque  diligentiam  compellitur  red- 
dere  rationem ;  nee  sufficit  talem  diligentiam  adhibere, 

15  qualem  suis  rebus  adhibere  soleret,  si  modo  alius  diligentior 
commodius  administraturus  esset  negotia. 

(the  absent  proprietor)  against  the  take  the  business  with  the  distinct 

negotiorum  gestor,  or  '  unauthor-  intention  of  binding  the  dominus 

ized  agent '   (ut  administrationis  and  not  animo  donandi. 

rationem  reddai),  and  the  latter  13.  ad  exactissimam  quisque  dili- 

is  a  set-off  or  counter  action  by  gentiam  compellitur :  the  negotio- 

which  the  negotiorum  gestor  may  rum    gestor,    although    he    is    a 

enforce  the  obligation  of  the  do-  volunteer,  is   liable   not   only  for 

minus  to  reimburse  him  for  any  fraud  (dolus)   but  generally  also 

necessary  and    useful   outlay,    on  for  any  degree  of  fault    (citlpa), 

the  condition,  however,  that  the  since,   save   for    his    interference, 

business  has  been  properly  con-  a  more   competent   person  might 

ducted  (utiliter  gestum).  have  undertaken   the   work.     He 

5.    ignorantes  :    if  the  dominus  must  complete  what  he  has  under- 

negotii  were  aware  that  the  busi-  taken  (unless  relieved),  and  must 

ness  was  being  undertaken  and  did  even  bear  the  loss  if  he  engage  in 

not   interfere,  the  relation  eStab-  any  business  not   reasonably  ex- 

lished  would  be  a  mandatum  tad-  pected   of  him    by  his    principal 

turn,  rather  than  negotiorum gestio.  (dominus}.     He  can  sue  his  prin- 

The  gestor  must,  however,  under-  cipal  for  all  outlay  caused  by  his 

229 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Tutores  quoque,  qui  tutelae  iudicio  tenentur,  non  proprie 
ex  contractu  obligati  intelleguntur  (nullum  enim  negotium 
inter  tutorem  et  pupillum  contrahitur),  sed  quia  sane  non 
ex  maleficio  tenentur,  quasi  ex  contractu  teneri  videntur. 

5  Et  hoc  autem  casu  mutuae  sunt  actiones :  non  tantum 
enim  pupillus  cum  tutore  habet  tutelae  actionem,  sed  et  ex 
contrario  tutor  cum  pupillo  habet  contrariam  tutelae,  si  vel 
impendent  aliquid  in  rem  pupilli  vel  pro  eo  fuerit  obliga- 
tus  aut  rem  suam  creditori  eius  obligaverit.  Item  si  inter 

10  aliquos  communis  sit  res  sine  societate,  veluti  quod  pariter 


management,  but  only  when  the 
expenses  were  absolutely  necessary 
and  for  the  interest  of  the  principal. 

i .  qui  tutelae  iudicio  tenentur : 
the  relation  of  guardian  (tutor  and 
pupillus)  gave  rise  to  duties  on 
both  sides,  but  as  the  relation  did 
not  arise  by  agreement  (the  office 
being  required  of  the  tutor  as  a 
public  duty),  but  by  law  (onus 
publicum,  cf.  notes  on  ins,  p.  139, 
and  Excusantur,  p.  143),  the  tute- 
lae administratio  was  classified  as 
a  quasi  contract. 

5.  mutuae  sunt  actiones :  the 
actions  are  reciprocal,  the  ward 
having  the  actio  tutelae  against  his 
guardian,  the  guardian,  an  actio 
tutelae  contraria  against  his  ward. 
By  the  former,  the  guardian's  lia- 
bility for  fraud,  fault,  and  negligent 
management  (diligent ia  quam  suis 
rebus)  could  be  enforced.  All  the 
acts  and  omissions  of  the  guard- 
ian's management  were  covered 
by  this  action.  By  the  counter 
action  (actio  tutelae  contraria), 


the  guardian  could  compel  the 
ward  to  reimburse  him  for  any 
outlay  honestly  and  judiciously 
made. 

10.  communis  res  sine  societate  : 
an  obligation  arises  from  the  ad- 
ministration of  joint  property  (com- 
mnnio,  'community  of  property') 
where  there  is  no  partnership, 
which,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  case,  may  be  enforced  by  dif- 
ferent actions.  Two  or  more  per- 
sons sharing  the  same  property 
(res  communis)  are  liable  to  each 
other  for  its  proper  division  by 
the  actio  communi  dividundo  (quae 
inter  eos  redditur,  inter  quos  ali- 
quid commune  est,  ut  id  dividatitr, 
Inst.  4,  6,  20)  ;  those  sharing  the 
same  inheritance,  by  the  actio 
familiae  erciscundae,  i.e.  divi- 
dundae  (Jiaec  actio  proficiscitur  e 
lege  duodecim  tabularum :  nainque 
cohefedibus  volentibus  a  com- 
munione  discedere  necessarinni 
videbatur  aliquam  actionem  con- 
stitin\  qua  inter  eos  res  Jieredita- 


230 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

eis  legata  donatave  esset,  et  alter  eorum  alter!  ideo  tenea- 
tur  communi  dividundo  iudicio,  quod  solus  fructus  ex  ea  re 
perceperit,  aut  quod  socius  eius  in  earn  rem  necessarias 
impensas  fecerit,  non  intellegitur  proprie  ex  contractu 

5  obligatus  esse,  quippe  nihil  inter  se  contraxerunt,  sed  quia 

non  ex  maleficio  tenetur,  quasi  ex  contractu  teneri  videtur. 

Idem  iuris  est  de  eo,   qui  cohered!  suo  familiae  ercis- 

cundae  iudicio  ex  his  causis  obligatus  est.     Heres  quoque 

legatorum  nomine  non  proprie  ex  contractu. obligatus  in- 

10  tellegitur  (neque  enim  cum  herede  neque  cum  defuncto 
ullum  negotium  legatarius  gessisse  proprie  dici  potest) ;  et 
tamen,  quia  ex  maleficio  non  est  obligatus  heres,  quasi  ex 
contractu  debere  intellegitur. 

Item  is,  cui  quis  per  errorem  non  debitum  solvit,  quasi 

15  ex  contractu  debere  videtur.  Adeo  enim  non  intellegitur 
proprie  ex  contractu  obligatus,  ut,  si  certiorem  rationem 
sequamur,  magis  ut  supra  diximus  ex  distractu,  quam  ex 
contractu  possit  dici  obligatus  esse ;  nam  qui  solvendi 
animo  pecuniam  dat,  in  hoc  dare  videtur,  ut  distrahat 

riae  distribuerentur,  D.  10,  2,  i).  action  lies  only  in  case  the  pay- 

An  heir  (Jieres)  on  acceptance  of  ment  made  was  due  to  an  error  in 

an  inheritance  {aditio  her  edit  at  is)  fact,  and  could  not  be  maintained 

is  bound    by  a   quasi  contractual  if  the  payment  were  due  in  equity 

obligation  to  pay  all  valid  legacies  or  by  a  natural  (naturaltter)  ob- 

of  the  testator  and  to  administer  ligation,  i.e.  an  obligation  having 

the  estate  in  a  proper  manner.  a   moral   or    natural  justification, 

14.  non  debitum  solvit :  the  pay-  though    not    legally    enforceable, 

ment  of  something  not  due  (in-  Since  the  obligation  was  founded 

debiti  solutio),  e.g.  a  sum  of  money,  on  the  fact  that  one   party  had 

or  a  legacy  paid  under  a  forged  been  enriched  at  the  expense  of 

will,  mistakenly   supposed   to  be  another,  rather  than  on  contract 

valid,  could  be  recovered   by  an  (ex  distractu  quam  ex  contractu), 

action  called  condictio  indebiti  (cf.  it    was    said    to    arise    quasi   ex 

also  note  on  mutui,  p.  201).    This  contractu. 

231 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

potius  negotium  quam  contrahat.  Sed  tamen  proinde  is 
qui  accepit  obligatur,  ac  si  mutuum  illi  daretur,  et  ideo 
condictione  tenetur. 


Gai.  3,  182 


OBLIGATIONS  EX  DELICTO 

Transeamus  nunc  ad  obligationes,  quae  ex 
delicto  nascuntur,  veluti  si  quis  furtum  fecerit, 
bona  rapuerit,  damnum  dederit,  iniuriam  commiserit ;  qua- 
rum  omnium  rerum  uno  genere  consistit  obligatio,  cum  ex 
contractu  obligationes  in  quattuor  genera  diducantur,  sicut 
supra  exposuimus. 


Obligations  ex  Delicto  :  the 
Romans  theoretically  regarded  all 
obligations  as  arising  from  conven- 
tion (contractus)  or  from  wrongful 
acts  (delicta)  other  than  a  breach 
of  contract.  It  has  been  seen  that 
contracts  are  of  various  kinds,  ac- 
cording to  the  way  in  which  they 
arise.  Delicts  are  of  one  kind,  ex 
re,  i.e.  all  arise  from  the  wrongful 
act  itself  (ex  delicto).  A  delict  is 
a  violation  of  a  person's  right  of 
property  and  of  his  rights  of 
status,  including  liberty,  reputa- 
tion, health,  honor,  etc.,  i.e.  rights 
which  may  be  maintained  against 
all  mankind  (in  rent)  and  not 
merely  against  the  person  bound 
to  the  injured  party  by  contractual 
obligation  (in  personant) .  Delicta 
are  divided  into  two  classes,  public 
and  private,  or  public  and  private 
wrongs.  Delicta  pnblica  are  crimes 
(crimina) ;  delicta  privata  are 
torts  or  civil  injuries.  Not  all 


wrongful  acts  are  by  the  Roman  law 
called  delicts,  but  only  those  which 
are  particularly  characterized  as 
such  and  for  which  the  law  pro- 
vided special  remedies  by  which 
a  penalty  or  compensation  could 
be  enforced.  Those  mentioned  in 
the  text  are :  furtum  (theft)  ; 
rapina  (robbery)  ;  damnum  iniu- 
ria  (damage  to  property)  ;  iniuria 
(injury  to  the  person).  It  is  im- 
portant to  notice  that  these  wrongs 
(even  theft  and  robbery)  are  here 
considered  as  private  injuries  (the 
wrongdoer  being  liable  to  the  in- 
jured party,  delicta  privata,  rather 
than  to  the  state,  delicta  publica, 
crimina)  and  are  enforceable  by  a 
private  penalty.  The  actions  aris- 
ing from  an  obligation  ex  delicto 
are  of  a  threefold  character :  they 
may  be  maintained  (a)  to  compel 
the  payment  of  a  fine  (poena,  actio 
poenalis)  •  (b)  to  make  compen- 
sation for  damages  (actio  rei  per- 


232 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  4,  i,  i 


THEFT  (Furtum) 

Furtum   est   contrectatio   rei   fraudulosa   vel 
ipsius  rei  vel  etiam  usus  eius  possessionisve,  quod 
lege  natural!  prohibitum  est  admittere.     Furtum  autem  vel 
a  furvo  id  est  nigro  dictum  est,  quod  clam  et  obscure  fit  et 
5  plerumque  nocte ;  vel  a  f raude ;  vel  a  ferendo,  id  est  aufe- 


secutorid) ;  (c)  to  compel  the 
payment  of  both  fine  and  damages 
at  the  same  time  (actio  mixta). 

Theft  (Furtum)  :  furtum  is 
not  identical  with  our  word  theft, 
The  Romans  included  in  the  mean- 
ing of  this  delict  what  we  call  theft, 
embezzlement,  and  conversion. 
The  term  furtum  is,  therefore, 
more  comprehensive,  embracing 
acts  which  do  not  constitute  a 
theft,  as,  for  example,  the  furtum 
of  one's  own  thing  or  a  furtum 
with  the  intention  of  returning  the 
object  taken.  See  below,  furtum 
possessionis,  furlum  usus.  Con- 
trectatio rei  is  an  actual  dealing 
with  a  thing  by  physical  touch, 
accompanied  by  an  evil  intent 
(fraudulosa).  An  intent  is  not 
sufficient  to  constitute  a  furtum, 
since  the  delict  must  be  one  which 
can  be  estimated  and  the  injury 
repaired  (furtiim  sine  dolo  malo 
non  committitur).  The  praetor 
(later  republican  period)  came  to 
distinguish  secret  and  forcible 
taking  (rapina,  vi  bona  rapta,  cf. 
below,  rapina)  from  the  old  ius 
civile  conception  oi  furtum  as  any 
wilfully  wrong  appropriation  of 


property.  The  contrectatio  may 
be  (a)  ipsius  rei,  i.e.  the  taking  of 
another's  movable  property,  either 
by  removing  it  from  his  detention 
or  by  a  wrongful  appropriation  of 
a  commodatum,  depositum,  etc. ; 
(V)  usus,  i.e.  the  temporary  use  of 
a  depositum  or  pledge,  or  the  use 
of  a  commodatum  otherwise  than 
was  intended  by  the  owner  (com- 
modator) ;  (c)  possessionis,  i.e. 
when  the  owner  removes  his  own 
thing  from  the  bona  fide  posses- 
sion of  another  (as  a  pledge  from 
the  hands  of  a  creditor),  the  owner 
himself  thereby  becoming  guilty 
of  furtum.  In  all  these  cases, 
the  same  actions  may  be  brought. 
Not  only  movable  things  may  be 
the  subject  of  theft,  but  also  free 
persons  might  be  stolen,  as  a  wife 
in  manu,  a  child  in  potestate,  and 
a  judgment  debtor  (addictus,  ittdi- 
catus).  Aid  and  advice  given 
to  a  thief  render  the  giver  liable 
for  theft  (furtum  nee  manifestum 
only),  if  the  wrongful  act  be  actu- 
ally perpetrated  (ope  consilio  alicu- 
ius  furtum  fact  urn) . 

3.    Furtum  a  furvo  :  furtum,  de- 
rived from  fur,  from  the  root  fer 


233 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


rendo  ;  vel  a  Graeco  sermone,  qui  (£<wpa<?  appellant  fures. 
Immo  etiam  Graeci  cnrb  TOV  fa'puv  0to/3a?  dixerunt.  Furto- 
rum  autem  genera  duo  sunt,  manifestum  et  nee  manifestum. 
Nam  conceptum  et  oblatum  species  potius  actionis  sunt 
5  furto  cohaerentes  quam  genera  furtorum,  sicut  inferius 
apparebit.  Manifestus  fur  est,  quern  Graeci  ITT'  avro^copy 
appellant  ;  nee  solum  is  qui  in  ipso  furto  deprehenditur, 
sed  etiam  is  qui  eo  loco  deprehenditur,  quo  fit,  veluti  qui 
in  domo  furtum  fecit  et  nondum  egressus  ianuam  depre- 


(ferre),  means  both  the  'act  of 
carrying  off'  and  the  '  thing  carried 
off1  in  an  unlawful  manner.  In 
strict  technical  language  it  means 
the  wrongful  appropriation  of  pri- 
vate property  as  distinguished  from 
sacrilegium,  appropriation  of  the 
property  of  the  gods,  and  peculatus 
(sometimes  called  fnrtiim  publi- 
cum  or  furtum  pecuniae  publicize), 
the  appropriation  of  public  prop- 
erty. 

3.  nee  manifestum :  for  nec=non 
in  formulae  and  legal  phraseology, 
see  Harper's  Lat.  Diet.  s.v.  neque,  I, 
and  cf.  note  on  res,  p.  1 63.  Cf.  Fes- 
tus,  s.v.  nee.  As  early  as  the  Twelve 
Tables  there  was  a  distinction  be- 
tween furtum  manifestum  and 
nee  manifestum  (manu-fendere, 
'  to  strike  or  grasp  with  the  hand ') . 
Fur  manifestus  is  a  thief  caught 
with  the  stolen  object  in  his  pos- 
session (qui  deprehenditur  cum 
furto).  Furtum  manifest  urn  was 
variously  defined  by  the  Roman 
jurists  as  (a)  when  the  thief  is  not 
merely  seen  but  caught  in  the  act 


of  thieving ;  (<£)  when  the  thief  is 
caught  on  the  spot  where  the  act 
was  perpetrated ;  (c)  when  the 
thief  is  seen  or  caught  before  he 
brought  the  stolen  object  to  the 
destination  intended ;  (d)  when 
the  thief  was  merely  seen  any- 
where with  the  stolen  object  in 
his  possession.  The  opinion  of 
the  text  is  that  under  (c).  The 
Twelve  Tables  allowed  the  killing 
of  a  thief  surprised  in  the  night  and 
of  thieves  defending  themselves 
with  weapons,  cf.  text,  p.  245. 
Otherwise,  the  penalty  for  furtum 
manifestum,  where  the  thief  was 
a  slave,  was  death  ;  where  he  was 
a  freeman,  surrender  into  slavery 
(or  bond  service)  to  the  injured 
person.  For  furtum  nee  mani- 
festum the  penalty  was  twice  the 
value  of  the  thing  stolen,  regard- 
less of  the  status  of  the  thief.  The 
praetor  altered  the  penalty  for 
furtum  manifestum  to  four  times 
the  value  of  the  thing  stolen  and 
retained  the  penalty  tor  furtum  nee 
manifestum  (see  text  below). 


234 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

hensus  fuerit,  et  qui  in  oliveto  olivarum  aut  in  vineto  uva- 
rum  furtum  fecit,  quamdiu  in  eo  oliveto  aut  in  vineto  fur 
deprehensus  sit;  immo  ulterius  furtum  manifestum  exten- 
dendum  est,  quamdiu  earn  rem  fur  tenens  visus  vel  depre- 
5  hensus  fuerit  sive  in  publico  sive  in  private  vel  a  domino 
vel  ab  alio,  antequam  eo  pervenerit,  quo  perferre  ac 
deponere  rem  destinasset.  Sed  si  pertulit  quo  destinavit, 
tametsi  deprehendatur  cum  re  furtiva,  non  est  manifestus 
fur.  Nee  manifestum  furtum  quid  sit,  ex  his  quae  diximus 

10  intellegitur ;  nam  quod  manifestum  non  est,  id  scilicet  nee 
manifestum  est.  Conceptum  furtum  dicitur,  cum  apud 
aliquem  testibus  praesentibus  furtiva  res  quaesita  et  in- 
venta  sit ;  nam  in  eum  propria  actio  constituta  est,  quamvis 
fur  non  sit,  quae  appellatur  concepti.  Oblatum  furtum 

15  dicitur,  cum  res  furtiva  ab  aliquo  tibi  oblata  sit  eaque  apud 
te  concepta  sit,  utique  si  ea  mente  tibi  data  fuerit,  ut  apud 

ii.   Conceptum  furtum  dicitur:  it  might  be  found  with  him  and 

the  text  mentions  several  actions  was  so  found.     In  each  of  these 

connected  with  theft,  belonging  to  cases  the  action  against  the  guilty 

the  earlier  law  and  arising  from  the  party  was  for  three  times  the  value 

right  of  private  search,  which  had  of  the  thing  stolen.    Furtum  pro- 

become   obsolete   in  the  time  of  hibitum  was  when  the  search  for 

Justinian  (see  below).     Of  these  a  stolen  object  was  hindered.   The 

four,  concepti,  oblati,  prohibiti,  and  one   causing  the    hindrance  was 

non   exhibiti,   the   first    three  are  liable  for  four  times  the  value  of 

mentioned  by  Gaius  and  Paulus  as  the   stolen   thing.     Furtum   non 

still  in  use.     Furtum  Conceptum  exhibitum  was  when  a  stolen  thing 

was   receiving  a  stolen   thing  so  was  not  handed  over  by  one  who 

that  it  was  found,  in  the  presence  actually  had  it  in  his  possession, 

of  witnesses   and  after  a  formal  "  The  expressions  furtum  concep- 

search  (described  below),  in  the  turn,  oblatum,  etc.,  are  examples 

possession  of  a  person.     Furtum  of  the  participle  used  to  denote  not 

oblatum  was  when  a  stolen  thing  the  thing  or  person  acted  on,  but 

was  transferred  (oblatum}  to  an-  the  action  itself."    Roby,  Lat.  Gr. 

other  than  the  thief,  in  order  that  §  1410. 

235 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

te  potius  quam  apud  eum  qui  dederit  conciperetur ;  nam 
tibi,  apud  quern  concepta  sit,  propria  adversus  eum  qui  op- 
tulit,  quamvis  fur  non  sit,  constituta  est  actio,  quae  appel- 
latur  oblati.  Est  etiam  prohibiti  furti  actio  adversus  eum, 
5  qui  furtum  quaerere  testibus  praesentibus  volentem  prohi- 
buerit.  Praeterea  poena  constituitur  edicto  praetoris  per 
actionem  furti  non  exhibiti  adversus  eum,  qui  f urtivam  rem 
apud  se  quaesitam  et  inventam  non  exhibuit.  Sed  hae 
actiones  id  est  concepti  et  oblati  et  furti  prohibiti  nee  non 

10  furti  non  exhibiti,  in  desuetudineai  abierunt.  Cum  enim  re- 
quisitio  rei  furtivae  hodie  secundum  veterem  observationem 
non  fit ;  merito  ex  consequentia  etiam  praefatae  actiones  ab 
usu  communi  recesserunt,  cum  manifestissimum  est,  quod 
omnes,  qui  scientes  rem  furtivam  susceperint  et  celaverint, 

15  furti  nee  manifesti  obnoxii  sunt.  Poena  manifest!  furti 
quadrupli  est  tam  ex  servi  persona  quam  ex  liberi,  nee 
manifesti  dupli. 

Poena  manifesti  furti  ex  lege  XII  tabularum  ca- 
pitalis  erat.     Nam  liber  verberatus  addicebatur 

20  ei  cui  furtum  fecerat ;  utrum  autem  servus  efficeretur  ex 

15.  Poena  manifest!  furti  quadru-  to  exercise  toward  a  nocturnal 
pli :  it  would  seem  to  us  that  the  thief.  To  prevent  the  infliction 
penalties  should  be  reversed  in  the  of  summary  vengeance  and  to 
two  kinds  of  theft.  But  the  Roman  induce  the  injured  party  to  have 
principle  appears  in  other  primitive  recourse  to  public  process  rather 
systems  and  has  been  variously  than  to  seek  a  private  remedy,  the 
explained.  Perhaps  the  best  view  primitive  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables 
is  that  the  heavier  penalty  of  fur-  allowed  him  more  satisfying  penal 
tit  in  manifestnm  was  a  concession  damages  than  in  the  case  of  fur- 
to  the  sudden  wrath  and  desire  for  turn  nee  manifestum.  The  poena 
vengeance  on  the  part  of  the  in-  quadrupli  was  a  bonus  in  favor  of 
jured  person,  and  was  designed  to  peace  as  against  private  violence, 
induce  him  to  refrain  from  self-  Both  the  poena  quadrnpli  and 
redress,  such  as  he  was  allowed  dupli  were  pure  penalty.  The 

236 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


addictione,  an  adiudicati  loco  constitueretur,  veteres  quae- 
rebant.  In  servum  aeque  verberatum  animadvertebatur. 
Sed  postea  inprobata  est  asperitas  poenae  et  tarn  ex  servi 
persona  quam  ex  liberi  quadrupli  actio  praetoris  edicto 
5  constituta  est.  Nee  manifest!  furti  poena  per  legem  XII 


owner  could  sue  for  the  thing  or 
its  value  by  real  or  personal  ac- 
tion (vrindicalio  or  condictio ;  see 
note  on  quadruplatttr,  p.  242). — 
capitalis  erat :  it  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  capitalis  means 
'pertaining  to  capuf1  as  a  condi- 
tion of  status  or  the  civil  position 
of  an  individual  with  reference  to 
liberty,  citizenship,  and  family  re- 
lations (cf.  note  on  Capitis,  p.  136) 
and  that  a  poena  capitalis  does 
not  necessarily  involve  '  capital ' 
punishment  (rei  capitalis  damna- 
tuin  sic  accipere  debeinus,  ex  qua 
( causa  damnato  vel  nwrs  vel  etiain 
civitatis  auiissio  vel  servitus  con- 
tingif).  The  Twelve  Tables  pre- 
scribed a  twofold  punishment  for 
the  fur  manifestus,  of  which  the 
more  severe  only  was  capitalis. 
If  he  were  a  slave,  he  received  the 
death  penalty,  being  thrown  from 
the  Tarpeian  rock  after  flagellation 
(servos  furti  manifesti  prensos 
verberibus  affici  et  e  saxo  praeci- 
pitari,  Cell,  n,  18,  8).  If  the 
thief  were  a  freeman,  the  penalty 
was  addiction  (addictid),  the 
guilty  person  being  beaten  and 
delivered  as  a  bondman  to  the  one 
injured  by  the  theft.  The  ancient 
jurists  were  in  doubt  whether  a 
freeman  was  reduced  thereby  to 


actual  slavery  (servus  ex  addic- 
tione), or  merely  to  the  condition 
of  a  judgment  debtor  (adiudicati 
loco,  in  causa  mancipii,  cf.  also 
note  on  aliae,  p.  1 28)  delivered  up 
to  his  creditor.  This  latter  con- 
dition, however,  did  not  take  away 
citizenship  and  merely  suspended 
personal  freedom  temporarily. 
The  opinion  prevailed  that  the 
penalty  was  actual  slavery  and  it 
was  accordingly  poena  capitalis 
(civitatis  amissio,  servitus  con- 
tingif).  The  penalty  in  both 
cases  was,  therefore,  capitalis. 
But  the  penalty  for  furtum  as  a 
delict  differed  from  that  for  fur- 
tum as  a  crime  in  that  the  former 
admitted  of  settlement  (pecuniaria 
aestimatio)  by  agreement  between 
the  thief  and  the  injured  person 
(de  furto  pacisci  lex,  i.e.  XII  tabu- 
lar urn,  permittit,  D.  2,  14,  7,  14). 
In  this  case  the  penalty  was  not 
capitalis,  but  the  right  of  action 
was  extinguished  by  composition 
(guaedam  actiones  per  pactum 
ipso  iure  tolluntur,  ut  furti,  D.  2, 
14,  17,  i).  The  praetor  mollified 
the  law  by  requiring  pecuniary 
damages  in  all  cases  {pro  capitali 
poena  pecuniar ia  constituta').  It 
may  be  asked  how  a  penalty  for 
fourfold  or  twofold  damages  could 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 


tabularum  dupli  inrogatur,  eamque  etiam  praetor  conservat. 
Concept!  et  oblati  poena  ex  lege  XII  tabularum  tripli  est, 
eaque  similiter  a  praetore  servatur.  Prohibit!  actio  qua- 
drupli  est  ex  edicto  praetoris  introducta;  lex  autem  eo 
5  nomine  nullam  poenam  constituit.  Hoc  solum  praecipit, 
ut  qui  quaerere  velit,  nudus  quaerat,  licio  cinctus,  lancem 
habens ;  qui  si  quid  invenerit,  iubet  id  lex  furtum  manifes- 
tum  esse.  Quid  sit  autem  licium,  quaesitum  est.  Sed 
verius  est  consuti  genus  esse,  quo  necessariae  partes  tege- 
10  rentur.  Ouae  res  ridicula  est.  Nam  qui  vestitum  quae- 
rere prohibet,  is  et  nudum  quaerere  prohibiturus  est,  eo 


be  enforced  against  a  thief,  if 
judgment  were  given  against  him. 
Execution  was  taken  against  the 
thief  just  as  against  any  other 
debtor.  Inability  to  pay,  there- 
fore, resulted  in  his  imprisonment 
as  a  judgment  debtor  (fur  addic- 
liis)  and  reduction  to  slavery 
(fures  privatorum  furtorum  in 
nervo  atque  compedibus  aetatem 
agunt,  Cell,  n,  18,  18). 

6.  nudus  quaerat,  licio  cinctus  : 
peculiar  to  the  delict  of  theft  is  the 
right  of  private  search  for  the  dis- 
covery of  stolen  property,  by  the 
ancient  form  here  described.  The 
Twelve  Tables  contained  pro- 
visions for  the  method  of  proced- 
ure. The  person  instituting  the 
search  must,  in  advance,  name  and 
describe  the  object  of  his  search 
(qui furtum  qtiaesiturus  est,  ante- 
quam  quaerat,  debet  dicere  quid 
quaerat  et  rein  suo  nomine  et  sua 
specie  designare).  Ancients  and 
moderns  have  expressed  various 


opinions  regarding  the  meaning 
and  significance  of  the  terms  em- 
ployed in  this  description  of  the 
quaestio  concepti  furti  per  licium 
et  lancem.  For  a  full  discussion, 
see  Karlowa,  Romische  Rechtsge- 
schichte,  Band  II,  p.  777.  Licium 
means  girdle  and  was  probably 
prescribed  to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  smuggling  stolen  goods 
into  the  house  searched,  or  of 
carrying  away  objects  secretly 
taken  during  the  search.  The 
lanx  possibly  typified  the  open 
and  lawful  removal  of  the  stolen 
object,  if  found.  This  formal 
search,  taking  the  form  licio  et 
lance  at  Rome,  is  a  primitive  in- 
stitution found  also  among  several 
other  peoples,  e.g.  Greeks,  Ger- 
mans, Slavs,  Kelts.  In  the  time 
of  Justinian,  the  search  for  stolen 
property  was  not  carried  on  by 
private  persons,  but  by  public  offi- 
cers as  in  modern  times. 
10.  Quae  res  :  i.e.  iota  lex. 


238 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


magis  quod  ita  quaesita  re  et  inventa  maiori  poenae  subi- 
ciatur.  Deinde  quod  lancem  sive  ideo  haberi  iubeat,  ut 
manibus  occupatis  nihil  subiciat,  sive  ideo,  ut  quod  invene- 
rit  ibi  inponat,  neutrum  eorum  procedit,  si  id  quod  quaera- 
5  tur,  eius  magnitudinis  aut  naturae  sit,  ut  neque  subici 
neque  ibi  inponi  possit.  Certe  non  dubitatur,  cuiuscumque 
materiae  sit  ea  lanx,  satis  legi  fieri. 


ROBBERY  (Rapina) 

Praetor  ait :  '  Si  cui  dolo  malo  hominibus  coac- 
tis  damni  quid  factum  esse  dicetur   sive   cuius 
10  bona  rapta  esse  dicentur,  in  eum,  qui  id  fecisse  dicetur, 
iudicium  dabo.     Item  si  servus  fecisse  dicetur,  in  dominum 


Ulp.  D. 
47-  8,  2 


Rapina :  rapina,  as  a  delict,  was 
first  formulated  and  defined  by 
the  praetorian  edict.  The  praetor, 
M.  Licinius  Lucullus,  granted  an 
action  designed  to  suppress  the 
forcible  seizure  of  property  and 
general  lawlessness  which  became 
prevalent  during  the  civil  war  in 
the  time  of  Sulla.  This  action 
furnishes  a  good  example  of  the 
way  in  which  the  praetorian  edict 
affected  the  development  of  the 
law  (cf.  Introd.  5).  Originally 
furtnm  included  every  wrongful 
appropriation  of  another's  prop- 
erty, whether  done  openly  or  by 
stealth.  The  special  action  of  the 
praetor  applied  only  to  seizure 
with  open  force  (vi  bona  rapta), 
\t\\i\e  furtum  came  to  be  restricted 
to  the  secret  taking  of  property. 
By  the  ius  civile,  the  violent  taking 
of  property  would  be  merely  fiir- 


tum  nee  manifestum,  with  a  two- 
fold penalty,  while  by  the  edict  it 
received  the  severer  penalty  equiv- 
alent to  fourfold  the  value  of  the 
property  plundered  (but  see  below, 
note  on  quadruplatur,  p.  242). 

8.  dolo  malo  :  rapina  does  not 
differ  from  furttim  in  regard  to 
dolus  or  the  evil  intent,  for  both 
required  its  presence ;  but  in  the 
edict,  dolo  malo  implied  the  use  of 
force  (see  below, '  dolus  habel  in  se 
et  vim"1).  Just  as  in  furtutn,  no 
offense  was  committed  without  the 
intent  to  steal  (animus  fnrandi), 
so  in  rapina,  where  there  was  a 
forcible  taking  under  color  of  right, 
no  offense  was  committed,  e.g.  a 
taxgatherer  who  drove  off  the  cat- 
tle of  one  erroneously  presumed 
to  have  broken  the  revenue  laws 
(lex  vectigalis}  was  not  liable 
under  the  edict.  —  hominibus 


239 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN"   LAW 


iudicium  noxale  dabo.'  Hoc  edicto  contra  ea,  quae  vi  com- 
mittuntur,  consuluit  praetor.  Nam  si  quis  se  vim  passum 
docere  possit,  publico  iudicio  de  vi  potest  experiri,  neque 
debet  publico  iudicio  privata  actione  praeiudicari  quidam 
5  putant;  sed  utilius  visum  est,  quamvis  praeiudicium  legi 
luliae  de  vi  privata  fiat,  nihilo  minus  tamen  non  esse  dene- 
gandam  actionem  eligentibus  privatam  persecutionem. 
'  Dolo  '  autem  '  malo  facere  '  potest  (quod  edictum  ait)  non 


coactis :  it  was  sufficient  under 
the  edict  that  men  be  collected 
or  instigated  to  collect  in  a 
riotous  manner,  whether  armed 
or  not.  They  might  be  numer- 
ous ;  even  a  single  person  suf- 
ficed, whether  free  or  slave.  The 
original  edict  ran  *si  cui  vi  dolo 
malo  hominibus  coactis  arma- 
tisvej  etc.,  the  principal  idea  con- 
tained in  it  being  vi,  force,  and  the 
instigation  of  others  to  the  use  of 
force.  Bono,  rapta  was  held  to 
mean  even  the  least  thing  carried 
off  by  force. 

i.  iudicium  noxale  dabo:  iudi- 
cium  here  (as  often)  is  equivalent  to 
actio.  When  a  slave  committed  a 
delict,  his  master  became  liable 
for  the  wrong  done  and  had  the 
option  of  paying  the  penalties  and 
damages,  or  else  he  might  surren- 
der the  slave  to  the  injured  party 
(noxae  dedere,  '  to  give  up  to  the 
harm,'  i.e.  to  surrender  to  the  one 
harmed),  aut  noxam  sarcire  ant 
noxae  dedere.  Such  actions  might 
arise  by  law  or  by  praetorian  edict. 
The  Twelve  Tables  gave  a  noxal 
action  for  furtum;  the  praetor, 


for  rapina.  Gaius  explains  that 
it  was  unjust  that  a  master  should 
suffer  loss  for  the  delicts  of  his 
slaves  greater  than  the  value  of 
each  slave's  person  (erat  enim 
iniquum  nequitiam  eoruin,  ultra 
ipsorum  corpora,  parentibns  domi- 
nisve  damnosain  esse,  Gai.  4,  75. 
The  noxal  surrender  applied  to 
filiifamtlias  also,  in  the  older  law 
(abolished  by  Justinian). 

5.  legi  luliae  de  vi:  the  party, 
whose  goods  were  plundered,  might 
proceed  by  civil  action,  or  by  a 
criminal  prosecution  under  the  lex 
lulia   de  vi  public  a   et  privata. 
This  law,  enacted  by  Julius  Caesar 
or    Augustus,   punished    violence 
with  armed  force  (vis  publica)  by 
deportation,  violence  without  arms 
(vis  privata)  by  confiscation  of 
one  third  of  the  criminal's  goods. 

6.  non  esse  denegandam  actio- 
nem :  i.e.  the  aggrieved  party  must 
choose  which  course  he  will  pursue ; 
the  right  to  proceed  criminally  ought 
not  to  be  prejudiced  by  the  bring- 
ing of  a  civil  action,  as  some  think  ; 
but  even  though  the  right  to  pros- 
ecute under  the  lex  lulia  de  vi 


240 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

tantum  is  qui  rapit,  sed  et  qui  praecedente  consilio  ad  hoc 
ipsum  homines  colligit  armatos,  ut  damnum  det  bonave 
rapiat.  Sive  igitur  ipse  quis  cogat  homines  sive  ab  alio 
coactis  utitur  ad  rapiendum,  dolo  malo  facere  videtur. 
5  Homines  coactos  accipere  debemus  ad  hoc  coactos,  ut 
damnum  daretur.  Neque  additur,  quales  homines  :  quales- 
cumque  sive  liberos  sive  servos. 

Doli  mali  mentio  hie  et  vim  in  se  habet.     Nam  qui  vim 
facit,  dolo  malo  fecit,  non  tamen  qui  dolo  malo  facit,  utique 

10  et  vi  facit.  Ita  dolus  habet  in  se  et  vim,  et  sine  vi  si  quid 
callide  admissum  est,  aeque  continebitur.  '  Damni '  praetor 
inquit;  omnia  ergo  damna  continet  et  clandestina.  Sed 
non  puto  clandestina,  sed  ea,  quae  violentia  permixta  sunt. 
Etiam  quis  recte  definiet,  si  quid  solus  admiserit  quis  non 

15  vi,  non  contineri  hoc  edicto,  et  si  quid  hominibus  coactis, 
etiamsi  sine  vi,  dummodo  dolo  sit  admissum,  ad  hoc 
edictum  spectare. 

'  Vel  cuius  bona  rapta  esse  dicuntur.'     Quod  ait  praetor 
'bona  rapta,'  sic  accipiemus :  etiam  si  una  res  ex  bonis 

20  rapta  sit. 

In  hac  actione  intra  annum  utilem  verum  pretium  rei 

privata  was  prejudiced,  neverthe-  i.e.  a  period  of  three  hundred  and 

less  it  seemed  more  expedient  that  sixty-five  days  actually  available 

an  action  should  not  be  denied  (utilis,  'usable')  for  beginning 

those  preferring  a  private  remedy.  legal  proceedings.  In  reckoning 

12.  clandestina:  the  word  is  the  days  of  such  a  period  of  time 

probably  a  gloss,  as  the  idea  of  (tempus  utile),  only  those  days 

open  force  is  the  principal  ground  were  counted  on  which  the  plaintiff 

for  the  praetor's  action,  while  con-  was  not  hindered  from  beginning 

cealed  or  clandestine  removal  of  proceedings.  Those  days  were, 

goods  was  furtitm.  therefore,  excluded"  on  which  the 

21 .  intra  annum  utilem :  an  an-  courts  did  not  sit,  or  during  which 

nus  utilis,  as  a  period  of  time  fixed  the  plaintiff  was  ignorant  of  his 

by  the  praetor,  was  a  judicial  year,  right,  or  the  intended  defendant 

ROMAN    LAW — 1 6  24! 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN   LAW 


quadruplatur,  non  etiam  quod  interest.  Haec  actio  etiam 
familiae  nomine  competit,  non  imposita  necessitate  osten- 
dendi,  qui  sunt  ex  familia  homines  qui  rapuerunt  vel  etiam 
damnum  dederunt.  Familiae  autem  appellatio  servos  con- 
5  tinet,  hoc  est  eos,  qui  in  ministerio  sunt,  etiamsi  liberi  esse 
proponantur  vel  alieni  bona  fide  nobis  servientes. 

Ex  hac  actione  noxae  deditio  non  totius  familiae,  sed 
eorum  tantum  vel  eius,  qui  dolo  fecisse  comperietur,  fieri 
debet.  Haec  actio  volgo  vi  bonorum  raptorum  dicitur. 

DAMAGE  TO  PROPERTY  (Damnum  Ininria  Datum) 


Lex  Aquilia  omnibus  legibus,  quae  ante  se  de 
damno  iniuria  locutae  sunt,  derogavit,  sive  duo- 
decim  tabulis,  sive  alia  quae  fuit;  quas  leges  nunc  referre 


10  Ulp.  D. 

9,  2,  I 


was  unknown.  The  annus  ntilis 
was,  therefore,  more  than  twelve 
months.  When  every  day  was 
counted,  the  time  was  called  tern- 
pus  continuum. 

i.  quadruplatur:  the  quadru- 
plum  claimed  by  the  plaintiff  by 
the  actio  vi  bonorum  raptorum  in- 
cluded the  restoration  of  the  prop- 
erty, or  its  value,  as  damages  /// 
stittplum,  and  three  times  the  value 
of  the  property  plundered  as  a 
penalty. /.<?.  a  triplum  as  penal  dam- 
ages. The  action  was,  therefore, 
an  actio  mixta  (see  note  on  Obliga- 
tions, p.  232,  end).  Cf.  the  actio 
furti  manifesti  where  the  qua- 
druplum  is  a  penalty,  the  thing 
when  not  destroyed,  otherwise  its 
value,  being  recoverable  in  addi- 
tion by  a  vindicatio  rei  or  a  con- 
diet 'io  furtiva,  respecti  vely . 


Damage  to  Property:  the  an- 
cient law  of  the  Twelve  Tables 
and  later  statutes  providing  for  the 
punishment  of  injury  to  private 
property  was  largely  supplanted 
by  the  lex  Aquilia,  a  plebiscitum 
proposed  by  a  certain  Aquilius, 
tribune  of  the  plebs.  The  date 
of  this  statute  is  uncertain.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  enacted  after  a 
secession  of  the  plebs,  as  a  fur- 
ther safeguard  against  the  op- 
pression of  the  patricians.  How- 
ever that  may  be.  it  undoubtedly 
dates  from  a  time  when  slaves  and 
herds  were  the  chief  wealth  of  the 
Romans,  and  when  agriculture  and 
stock-raising  formed  their  chief  oc- 
cupations. Uncoined  money  (aes 
grave)  was  still  employed  as  a 
standard  of  value  in  imposing  fines 
(aes  dare  damnas  esto).  The  lex 


242 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


non  est  necesse.     Quae  lex  Aquilia  plebiscitum  est,  cum 
earn  Aquilius  tribunus  plebis  a  plebe  rogaverit. 
Gai.  D.  Lege  Aquilia  capite  primo  cavetur  :  '  ut  qui 

9- 2- 2  servum  servamve  alienum  alienamve  quadrupe- 

5  dem  vel  pecudem  iniuria  occiderit,  quanti  id  in  eo  anno 


Aquilia  was  probably  one  of  the 
earliest  plebiscita  enacted  under 
the  lex  Hortensia,  287  B.C.  (i.e. 
soon  after  the  third  secession  of 
the  plebs),  by  the  terms  of  which 
plebiscita  were  put  on  an  equal 
footing  with  leges  and  were  binding 
on  the  whole  people  (cf.  Introd. 
2  and  note  on  plebiscita,  p.  50). 
The  Aquilian  law  provided  for  the 
punishment  of  damage  to  property, 
resulting  either  in  the  total  loss  of 
a  definite  corporeal  thing,  or  in  an 
injury  to  it  which  could  be  esti- 
mated in  money.  It  was  com- 
posed of  three  chapters.  The 
first  granted  an  action  for  the 
wrongful  killing  of  another's  slave 
or  fourfooted  domestic  animal  (ex- 
cept dogs),  i.e.  horse,  ass,  mule, 
goat,  sheep,  pig.  The  jurists  in- 
cluded within  the  meaning  of  the 
statute  elephants  and  camels  as 
beasts  of  burden.  This  chapter 
of  the  law  embraced  a  wider  range 
of  animals,  therefore,  than  the 
older  distinction  of  res  mancipi 
and  res  nee  mancipi,  cf.  note  on 
res,  p.  163.  The  second  chapter 
(obsolete  in  the  time  of  Justinian) 
was  concerned  with  a  very  differ- 
ent kind  of  injury,  and  its  connec- 
tion with  the  rest  of  the  statute  is 
not  clear.  It  granted  an  action 


(for  the  amount  of  the  loss  sus- 
tained) against  an  adstipulator 
(an  accessory  creditor)  who  re- 
leased the  debtor  from  payment  in 
such  a  way  as  to  defraud  a  stipu- 
lator  (an  original  and  principal 
creditor),  Gai.  3,  215.  The  third 
chapter  made  provision  for  the 
wrongful  (a)  wounding  of  slaves 
and  animals  named  in  Chap,  i ; 
(b)  killing  or  wounding  any  other 
kinds  of  animals,  or  damaging  any 
other  kinds  of  corporeal  property 
belonging  to  another. 

3.  ut  qui :  si  quis  should  proba- 
bly be  read.  What  purports  here 
to  be  the  text  of  the  law  was,  of 
course,  originally  in  much  more 
archaic  Latin. 

5.  iniuria :  for  iniuria  in  the 
specific  sense,  as  a  distinct  delict, 
meaning  insult,  insulting  con- 
duct, see  text  below,  p.  250.  In 
this  statute,  iniuria  means  '  with- 
out right,  wrongfully '  (in-ius ; 
quod  non  iure  factum  est) .  The 
lex  Aquilia  applied  only  to  culpa- 
ble damage  (i.e.  where  there  was 
even  the  slightest  degree  of  culpa) 
and  was  not  restricted  to  wilful  or 
malicious  injury  (damnum  culpa 
datum  etiam  ab  eo  qui  nocere  no- 
luit).  It  did  not  apply  to  hurt 
.  done  in  self-defense  (vim  vi  de- 


243 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


plurimi  fuit,  tantum  aes  dare  domino  damnas  esto ' ;  et 
infra  deinde  cavetur,  ut  adversus  infitiantem  in  duplum 
actio  esset.  Vt  igitur  apparet,  servis  nostris  exaequat 
quadrupedes,  quae  pecudum  numero  sunt  et  gregatim 
5  habentur,  veluti  oves  caprae  boves  equi  muli  asini.  Sed 
an  sues  pecudum  appellatione  continentur,  quaeritur ;  et 
recte  Labeoni  placet  contineri.  Sed  canis  inter  pecudes  non 
est.  Longe  magis  bestiae  in  eo  numero  non  sunt,  veluti 
ursi,  leones,  pantherae.  Elefanti  autem  et  cameli  quasi 
10  mixti  sunt  (nam  et  iumentorum  operam  praestant  et  natura 
eorum  fera  est)  et  ideo  primo  capite  contineri  eas  oportet. 


fendere  omnes  leges  omniaque  iura 
pert/iitt tint).  No  reparation  is 
required  where  damage  is  caused 
by  one  who  exercises  his  own 
right  {non  indetitr  vim  facer e  qui 
iure  sue  utitur)  or  by  unavoidable 
accident  in  the  absence  of  all 
blame.  —  id :  i.e.  ea  res,  as  in 
the  third  chapter  below.  —  in  eo 
anno  plurimi :  the  action  was  for 
the  highest  value  which  the 
damaged  property  had  attained  at 
any  time  during  the  year  previ- 
ous to  the  injury  (i.e.  death  or 
time  when  fatal  wound  was  re- 
ceived), not  the  mere  value  of  the 
thing  at  time  of  loss  (yerum  rei 
pretimii).  As  the  plaintiff's  full 
interest  (interesse)  was  covered,  it 
was  an  actio  mixta,  combining  both 
indemnity  and  penalty  (cf.  note  on 
Obligations,  p.  232).  No  account 
was  taken,  however,  of  purely  per- 
sonal feelings  and  sentiments, 
having  no  economic  value  {non 
affect iones  aestimandas  esse  puto), 


e.g.  family  affection.  But  in  esti- 
mating the  value  of  a  slave,  his 
talents  and  accomplishments  were 
taken  into  account. 

i.  damnas :  condemned.  This 
indeclinable  adjective  or  participial 
form  is  common  in  legal  formulae. 
Damnas  esto  means  that  the 
defendant  stands  already  con- 
demned ;  if  he  attempt  to  evade 
the  judgment  against  him  by  deny- 
ing his  guilt  {infitiantem)  and 
standing  trial,  an  action  for  twice 
the  estimated  damage  will  lie 
against  him  (if  shown  to  be  guilty) 
because  of  his  non-admission ; 
whereas  the  offender  admitting 
his  guilt  (confessiis)  has  the  simple 
value  to  pay,  as  estimated  by  the 
judge  (notandum,  quod  in  hac  ac- 
tione,  quae  adversiis  confitentem 
datur,  index  noil  rei  indicandae 
sed  aestimandae  datnr,  nam  nnllae 
paries  sunt  iudicandi  in  confi- 
tentes,  D.  9,  2,  25). 

n.    eas  :  i.e.  bestias. 


244 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Itaque  si  servum  tuum  latronem  insidiantem  mihi  occi- 
dero,  securus  ero ;  nam  adversus  periculum  naturalis  ratio 
permittit  se  defendere.  Lex  XII  tabularum  furem  noctu 
deprehensum  occidere  permittit,  ut  tamen  id  ipsum  cum 
5  clamore  testificetur ;  interdiu  autem  deprehensum  ita  per- 
mittit occidere,  si  is  se  telo  defendat,  ut  tamen  aeque  cum 
clamore  testificetur. 

uip.  D.  Sed  et  si  quemcumque  alium  ferro  se  peten- 

9.  2-  5  tern  quis    occiderit,  non  videbitur  iniuria  occi- 

10  disse :  et  si  metu  quis  mortis  furem  occiderit,  non  dubitabi- 
tur;  quin  lege  Aquilia  non  teneatur.  Sin  autem  cum  posset 
adprehendere,  maluit  occidere,  magis  est  ut  iniuria  fecisse 
videatur :  ergo  et  Cornelia  tenebitur.  Iniuriam  autem  hie 
accipere  nos  oportet  non  quemadmodum  circa  iniuriarum 

15  actionem  contumeliam  quandam,  sed  quod  non  iure  fac- 
tum  est,  hoc  est  contra  ius,  id  est  si  culpa  quis  occiderit ; 
et  ideo  interdum  utraque  actio  concurrit  et  legis  Aquiliae 
et  iniuriarum,  sed  duae  erunt  aestimationes,  alia  damni 
alia  contumeliae.  Igitur  iniuriam  hie  damnum  accipie- 

20  mus  culpa  datum  etiam  ab  eo,  qui  nocere  noluit.  Et  ideo 
quaerimus,  si  furiosus  damnum  dederit,  an  legis  Aquiliae 
actio  sit ;  et  Pegasus  negavit :  quae  enim  in  eo  culpa  sit, 

13.  Cornelia  (sc.  lege)  tenebitur :  were   done    maliciously,  and    the 

before  the  lex  Cornelia,  enacted  plaintiff  proceed   by  civil   action, 

by  Sulla,  the  killing  of  another's  criminal  prosecution  under  the  lex 

slave  was  punished  simply  as  dam-  Cornelia  de  sicariis  should  not  be 

age  to  property,  but  by  that  law  thereby  prejudiced  (si  dolo  servus 

it  was  also  made  a  crime,  punish-  occisus  sit,  et  lege  Cornelia  agere 

able    by   death    or    exile    (cuius  dominum  posse  constat :  et  si  lege 

servus  occisus  est,  is  liberum  ar-  Aquilia  egerit,  praeiudicium  fieri 

bitrium  habet  vel  capitali  crimine  Cprneliae    non    debet,    D.    9,    2, 

rerun  facere  eum  qui  occiderit,  vel  23,  9) . 

hac  lege  (Aquilia)  damnum  perse-  14-   iniuriarum:    see   text  and 

qui,  Gai.  3,  213).     If  the   killing  notes  below,  p.  250. 

245 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

cum  suae  mentis  non  sit;  et  hoc  est  verissimum.  Ces- 
sabit  igitur  Aquiliae  actio,  quemadmodum,  si  quadrupes 
damnum  dederit,  Aquilia  cessat,  aut  si  tegula  ceciderit. 
Sed  et  si  infans  damnum  dederit,  idem  erit  dicendum. 
5  Quodsi  inpubes  id  fecerit,  Labeo  ait,  quia  furti  tenetur, 
teneri  et  Aquilia  eum  ;  et  hoc  puto  verum,  si  sit  iam  iniu- 
riae  capax.  Si  magister  in  disciplina  vulneraverit  servum 
vel  occiderit,  an  Aquilia  teneatur,  quasi  damnum  iniuria 
dederit  ?  et  lulianus  scribit  Aquilia  teneri  eum,  qui  elusca- 

10  verat  discipulum  in  disciplina ;  multo  magis  igitur  in  occiso 
idem  erit  dicendum.  Proponitur  autem  apud  eum  species 
talis :  sutor,  inquit,  puero  discenti  ingenuo  filio  familias, 
parum  bene  facienti  quod  demonstraverit,  forma  calcei  cer- 
vicem  percussit,  ut  oculus  puero  perfunderetur.  Dicit 

15  igitur  lulianus  iniuriarum  quidem  actionem  non  competere, 
quia  non  faciendae  iniuriae  causa  percusserit,  sed  monendi 
et  docendi  causa ;  an  ex  locate,  dubitat,  quia  levis  dumtaxat 
castigatio  concessa  est  docenti ;  sed  lege  Aquilia  posse  agi 
Paul.  D.  non  dubito,  praeceptoris  enim  nimia  saevitia 

20  9-  2. 6  culpae  adsignatur. 

uip.  D.  Qua  actione  patrem  consecuturum  ait,  quod 

9'2-7  minus  ex  operis  filii  sui  propter  vitiatum  oculum 

sit  habiturus,  et  impendia,  quae  pro  eius  curatione  fecerit. 
Occisum  autem  accipere  debemus,  sive  gladio  sive  etiam 

25  fuste  vel  alio  telo  vel  manibus  (si  forte  stranguJavit  eum) 
vel  calce  petiit  vel  capite  vel  qualiter  qualiter.  Sed  si  quis 

12.    ingenuo  filio  familias:  the  of  services  caused  by  the  injury  of 

lex  Aquilia  did  not  provide  for  in-  a  son  in  his  power.     It  is  a  maxim 

jury  to  the  body  of  a  freeman,  but  of  Roman  law  that  no  valuation 

an  analogous  action  (actioutilis,  see  can  be  placed  on  the  person  of  a 

below)  was  allowed  by  which  the  freeman  (liberum  corpus  aestiina- 

father  could  recover  for  the  cost  tionem  non  recipif)  and  no  dam- 

of  medical  treatment  and  the  loss  ages  could  be  recovered,  therefore, 

246 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

plus  iusto  oneratus  deiecerit  onus  et  servum  occiderit, 
Aquilia  locum  habet ;  fuit  enim  in  ipsius  arbitrio  ita  se  non 
onerare.  Nam  et  si  lapsus  aliquis  servum  alienum  onere 
presserit,  Pegasus  ait  lege  Aquilia  eum  teneri  ita  demum, 
5  si  vel  plus  iusto  se  oneraverit  vel  neglegentius  per  lubricum 
transierit. 

Gai.  D.  Idem  iuris  est,  si  medicamento  perperam  usus 

9-  2, 8  f  uerit,  sed  et  qui  bene  secuerit  et  dereliquit  cura- 

tionem,    securus   non    erit,    sed    culpae    reus  intellegitur. 

10  Mulionem  quoque,  si  per  imperitiam  impetum  mularum 
retinere  non  potuerit,  si  eae  alienum  hominem  obtriverint, 
vulgo  dicitur  culpae  nomine  teneri.  Idem  dicitur  et  si 
propter  infirmitatem  sustinere  mularum  impetum  non  po- 
tuerit; nee  videtur  iniquum,  si  infirmitas  culpae  adnume- 

15  retur,  cum  affectare  quisque  non  debeat,  in  quo  vel  intellegit 
vel  intellegere  debet  infirmitatem  suam  alii  periculosam 
futuram.  Idem  iuris  est  in  persona  eius,  qui  impetum 

under  the  lex  Aquilia  for  disfigure-  ex  verbis  legis,  sed  ex  interpreta- 
ment  of  the  person  in  the  case  tione).  Such  actions  are  called 
stated  in  the  text.  utilis  and  in  factum.  Where  the 
7.  Idem  iuris  est  si  medicamento :  damage  to  the  definite  thing  was 
the  lex  Aquilia  provided  originally  an  indirect  result  of  the  offend- 
only  for  damage  done  by  direct  er's  act,  as  causing  a  slave's  death 
physical  contact  of  the  offender  by  setting  a  dog  upon  him,  an 
with  the  property  of  the  plaintiff  actio  utilis  was  granted  (damnitin 
(damnunt  cor  par e  cor pori  datum) .  non  cor  pore  sed  carport  datum). 
Subsequently,  by  the  interpreta-  Where  there  was  no  damage  to  the 
tion  of  the  jurists,  the  meaning  of  thing  itself,  but  the  deprivation  of 
the  statute  was  extended  so  that  it  caused  the  owner  an  injury, 
killing  (in  Chap,  i)  included  many  through  an  act  of  the  defendant, 
-circumstances  and  acts  only  indi-  an  actio  in  fact  it  m  was  granted 
rectly  causing  death.  Actions  (damnum  nee  corpore  nee  corpori 
were  then  granted  by  the  praetor  datum),  as  when  one  removed  a 
in  these  analogous  cases,  after  the  slave's  chains,  permitting  him  to 
precedent  of  the  lex  Aquilia  (non  run  away.  All  of  the  cases  in  the 

247 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

equi,  quo  vehebatur,  propter  imperitiam  vel  infirmitatem 
retinere  non  poterit. 

Gai.  D.  Imperitia  culpae  adnumeratur. 

50, 17, 132  5i  ex  piagis  servus  mortuus  esset  neque  id 

5  Aifen.  D.        medici  inscientia  aut  domini  neglegentia  acci- 
9-  2, 52  disset,  recte  de  iniuria  occiso  eo  agitur.     Taber- 

narius  in  semita  noctti  supra  lapidem  lucernam  posuerat; 
quidam  praeteriens  earn  sustulerat :  tabernarius  eum  con- 
secutus  lucernam  reposcebat  et  f  ugientem  retinebat ; 

10  ille  flagello,  quod  in  manu  habebat,  in  quo  dolor  inerat, 
verberare  tabernarium  coeperat,  ut  se  mitteret;  ex  eo 
maiore  rixa  facta  tabernarius  ei,  qui  lucernam  sustulerat, 
oculum  effoderat;  consulebat,  num  damnum  iniuria  non 
videtur  dedisse,  quoniam  prior  flagello  percussus  esset. 

15  Respondi,  nisi  data  opera  effodisset  oculum,  non  videri 
damnum  iniuria  fecisse,  culpam  enim  penes  eum  qui  prior 
flagello  percussit,  residere ;  sed  si  ab  eo  non  prior  vapu- 
lasset,  sed  cum  ei  lucernam  eripere  vellet,  rixatus  esset, 
tabernarii  culpa  factum  videri.  In  clivo  Capitolino  duo 

20  plostra  onusta  mulae  ducebant;  prioris  plostri  muliones 
conversum  plostrum  sublevabant,  quo  facile  mulae  duce- 
rent :  inter  superius  plostrum  cessim  ire  coepit  et  cum 
muliones,  qui  inter  duo  plostra  fuerunt,  e  medio  exissent, 
posterius  plostrum  a  priore  percussum  retro  redierat  et 

25  puerum  cuiusdam  obtriverat ;  dominus  pueri  consulebat, 
cum  quo  se  agere  oporteret.  Respondi  in  causa  ius  esse 
positum ;  nam  si  muliones,  qui  superius  plostrum  susti- 
nuissent,  sua  sponte  se  subduxissent  et  ideo  factum  esset, 
ut  mulae  plostrum  retinere  non  possint  atque  onere  ipso 

text  well  illustrate  the  extension  22.   inter  superius  plostrum  ces- 

of  the  statute  and  the  subtleties  sim:  the  text  is  corrupt.  Instead 
of  the  jurists1  discussions.  of  mulae  ducerent :  inter  superius 

248 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

retraherentur,  cum  domino  mularum  nullam  esse  actionem, 
cum  hominibus,  qui  conversum  plostrum  sustinuissent,  lege 
Aquilia  agi  posse :  nam  nihilo  minus  eum  damnum  dare, 
qui  quod  sustineret  mitteret  sua  voluntate,  ut  id  aliquem 
5  feriret ;  veluti  si  quis  asellum  cum  agitasset  non  retinuisset, 
aeque  si  quis  ex  manu  telum  aut  aliud  quid  immisisset, 
damnum  iniuria  daret  Sed  si  mulae,  quia  aliquid  reformi- 
dassent  et  muliones  timore  permoti,  ne  opprimerentur, 
plostrum  reliquissent,  cum  hominibus  actionem  nullam 

10  esse,  cum  domino  mularum  esse.  Quod  si  neque  mulae 
neque  homines  in  causa  essent,  sed  mulae  retinere  onus 
nequissent  aut  cum  coniterentur  lapsae  concidissent  et  ideo 
plostrum  cessim  redisset  atque  hi  quo  conversum  fuisset 
onus  sustinere  nequissent,  neque  cum  domino  mularum 

15  neque  cum  hominibus  esse  actionem.     Illud  quidem  cer- 
tum  esse,  quoquo  modo  res  se  haberet,  cum  domino  pos- 
teriorum  mularum  agi  non  posse,  quoniam  non  sua  sponte, 
sed  percussae  retro  redissent. 
uip.  D.  Huius  legis  secundum    quidem   capitulum  in 

20  9. 2, 27, 4  desuetudinem  abiit.  Tertio  autem  capite  ait 
eadem  lex  Aquilia :  '  Ceterarum  rerum  praeter  hominem 
et  pecudem  occisos  si  quis  alteri  damnum  faxit,  quod 
usserit,'  fregerit,  ruperit  iniuria,  quanti  ea  res  erit  in  diebus 

plostmm,  Mommsen  proposes  the  an  example  .of  the  extension  of 

reading  mulae  facerent  tier :  supe-  meaning  given  by  the  ancient 

rius  plostrum.  interpretation  so  that  it  was  equiva- 

2.  conversum  plostrum,  etc., '  the  lent  to  cornimpere  in  this  law.  — 

mule-drivers  of  the  wagon  higher  quanti  ea  res  erit :  sc.  plurimi. 

up  the  hill  attempted  to  push  The  omission  of  plurimi  is  acci- 

the  wagon  which  was  beginning  dental,  as  in  practice  it  was  the 

to  roll  backward,  to  lighten  the  highest  value  of  the  previous  thirty 

burden  for  the  mules,'  etc.  days,  not  the  value  named  at  the 

23.   ruperit :  this  word  furnishes  discretion  of  the  judge. 

249 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN    LAW 

triginta  proximis,  tantum  aes  domino  dare  damnas  esto.' 
Si  quis  igitur  non  occiderit  hominem  vel  pecudem,  sed 
usserit,  fregerit,  ruperit,  sine  dubio  ex  his  verbis  legis 
agendum  erit.  Proinde  si  facem  servo  meo  obieceris  et 
5  eum  adusseris,  teneberis  mihi.  Item  si  arbustum  meum 
vel  villam  meam  incenderis,  Aquiliae  actionem  habebo. 


INJURY  TO  THE  PERSON  (Iniuria} 

Iniuria  ex  eo  dicta  est,  quod  non  iure  fiat ; 
omne  enim,  quod  non  iure  fit,  iniuria  fieri  dicitur. 
Hoc  generaliter.     Specialiter   autem    iniuria   dicitur   con- 
10  tumelia.     Interdum    iniuriae    appellatione  damnum   culpa 


Ulp.  D. 
47.  io,  I 


7.  Iniuria  :  iniuria  is  an  inten- 
tional insult  to  the  person,  honor, 
or  reputation  of  another,  or  any 
malicious  and  insulting  conduct 
which  amounts  to  a  wrongful  dis- 
regard for  another's  personality. 
Such  an  insult  may  arise  either  by 
word  (verbis}  or  deed  (re),  i.e. 
it  may  constitute  an  injury  to  the 
feeling  by  public  reviling  or  by 
slander  or  libel ;  or  to  the  person 
by  violent  acts  such  as  assault,  or 
by  any  other  malicious  conduct 
directed  against  another's  honor 
or  liberty.  The  meaning  of  iniuria 
was  also  extended  to  include  any 
defamation  which  affected  harm- 
fully the  social  or  business  stand- 
ing of  another  or  reflected  upon 
his  financial  position,  business  in- 
tegrity, honor,  chastity,  and  the 
like.  It  included,  in  fact,  every 
attack  upon  the  dignity  of  a  free 


person.  The  attention  which  this 
delict  received  in  the  Twelve  Ta- 
bles (see  note  on  Poena,  p.  252) 
and  the  early  law  of  the  republic 
shows  the  high  regard  which  the 
Romans  attached  to  personal  dig- 
nity and  how  carefully  their  de- 
sire for  an  unsullied  reputation 
was  safeguarded.  Any  diminu- 
tion of  the  reputation  was  a  most 
severe  penalty  (e.g.  by  a  nota 
censor  ia},  since  it  disqualified 
those  so  affected  from  exercising 
their  full  rights  of  citizenship.  So 
carefully  was  the  good  name  of 
Roman  citizens  guarded  that  in- 
sult offered  even  to  the  dead  might 
give  a  right  of  action  to  the  heir 
(cadaver i  defu ncti  fit  iniuria,  see 
text  below).  The  extreme  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  Romans  to  ridicule 
and  their  hatred  of  gross  person- 
alities exercised  considerable  in- 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

datum  significatur,  ut  in  lege  Aquilia  dicere  solemus;  in- 
terdum  iniquitatem  iniuriam  dicimus,  nam  cum  quis  inique 
vel  iniuste  sententiam  dixit,  iniuriam  ex  eo  dictam,  quod 
hire  et  iustitia  caret,  quasi  non  iuriam,  contumeliam  autem 

5  a  contemnendo.  Iniuriam  autem  fieri  Labeo  ait  aut  re  aut 
verbis :  re,  quotiens  manus  inferuntur ;  verbis  autem,  quo- 
tiens  non  manus  inferuntur,  convicium  fit;  omnemque 
iniuriam  aut  in  corpus  inferri  aut  ad  dignitatem  aut  ad  in- 
famiam  pertinere  :  in  corpus  fit,  cum  quis  pulsatur ;  ad  digni- 

10  tatem,  cum  comes  matronae  abducitur;  ad  infamiam,  cum 
pudicitia  adtemptatur.  Item  aut  per  semet  ipsum  alicui  fit 
iniuria  aut  per  alias  personas.  Per  semet,  cum  directo  ipsi 
cui  patri  familias  vel  matri  familias  fit  iniuria;  per  alias, 
cum  per  consequentias  fit,  cum  fit  liberis  meis  vel  servis 

15  meis  vel  uxori  nuruive ;  spectat  enim  ad  nos  iniuria,  quae 
in  his  fit,  qui  vel  potestati  nostrae  vel  affectui  subiecti 
sint.  Et  si  forte  cadaveri  defuncti  fit  iniuria,  cui  heredes 
bonorumve  possessores  exstitimus,  iniuriarum  nostro  no- 
mine habemus  actionem ;  spectat  enim  ad  existimationem 

20  nostram,  si  qua  ei  fiat  iniuria.  Idemque  et  si  fama  eius, 
cui  heredes  exstitimus,  lacessatur. 

fluence  on  the  history  and  character  vation  of  the  word  see   note,  p. 

of  Latin  comedy,  as  has  often  been  103. 

pointed  out.  12-   aut  per  alias  personas :  an 

3.   iniuste  sententiam  dixit:  the  action  for  insult  may  be  brought  by 

wrong  which  a  judge  commits  in  any  person  affected  by  the  insult, 

delivering   an   illegal   sentence  is  whether  the  injury  was  done  di- 

noticed    below    among  the  quasi  rectly  to  him  (per  semet  ipsum)  or 

de]icts.  to  some  one  so  related  to  him  that 

7.   convicium :  i.e.  a  public  revil-  he  has  an  interest  in  its  reparation 

ing  or  uproar,  collecting  a  crowd  per  consequentias  (qui  vel  potes- 

about  a  person  or  his  house  or  shop  tati  vel  affectui   subiecti}.     The 

(even  though  the  owner  is  absent)  same  insult  might  give  an  action 

by  boisterous  conduct.     For  deri-  to   each   person   injured,   no   one 

251 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN    LAW 


Inst.  4,  4, 1 


Iniuria   autem    committitur   non  solum,  cum 
quis  pugno  puta  aut  fustibus  caesus  vel  etiam 
verberatus  erit,  sed  etiam  si  cui  convicium  factum  fuerit, 
sive  cuius  bona  quasi  debitoris  possessa  fuerint  ab  eo,  qui 
5  intellegebat  nihil  eum  sibi  debere,  vel  si  quis  ad  infamiam 
alicuius  libellum  aut  carmen  scripserit,  composuerit,  edi- 
derit,  dolove  malo  fecerit,  quo  quid  eorum  fieret,  sive  quis 
matrem  familias  aut  praetextatum  praetextatamve  adsec- 
tatus  fuerit,  sive  cuius  pudicitia  attemptata  esse  dicetur ;  et 
10  denique  aliis  pluribusmodis  admitti  iniuriam  manifestum  est. 
Poena   autem  iniuriarum  ex  lege  duodecim   tabularum 
propter  membrum  quidem  ruptum  talio  erat:    propter  os 


action  barring  the  others  (cf.  Gai. 
3,221). 

7.  dolo  malo :  to  constitute  an 
offense  giving  rise  to  the  actioinin- 
riantin,  it  was  necessary  that  the 
wrong  be  done  intentionally  (a/ii- 
nio  iniuriandi),  hence  a  blow 
received  in  jest  or  in  an  athletic 
contest,  or  a  blow  given  to  a  free- 
man mistaken  for  a  slave,  was  not 
iniuria.  One  who  aids  or  advises 
in  the  publication  of  libelous  writ- 
ings or  in  causing  any  other  form 
of  insult  becomes  a  participator 
in  the  wrong  and  is  as  liable  as 
the  doer  himself. 

10.  aliis  pluribus  modis :  some 
of  the  numerous  ways  in  which  an 
insult  could  be  given,  not  men- 
tioned in  the  text,  were  by  sum- 
moning another  into  court  to  annoy 
him  (vexandi  causa)  \  by  wearing 
hair  and  beard  uncut  to  incite 
hatred  against  another ;  by  follow- 
ing another  about  in  mourning 


clothes ;  by  beating  or  torturing 
another's  slave,  so  as  to  be  offen- 
sive to  the  slave's  master ;  by 
preventing  another  from  enjoying 
his  public  or  private  privileges, 
such  as  fishing  in  the  sea,  making 
use  of  the  public  baths,  sitting  in 
the  amphitheater,  etc. 

ii.  Poena  iniuriarum :  according 
to  the  Twelve  Tables,  the  author 
of  abusive  writings  and  lampoons 
(accent  at  to  et  malum  carmen')  was 
guilty  of  a  crime  and  punished 
either  by  death  or,  as  some  writers 
say,  by  beating  with  clubs.  Se- 
rious bodily  harm  (inembriiin  rnp- 
tnin,  '  mutilation  of  a  limb ')  was 
punishable  by  retaliation  in  kind 
(talio,  from  talis, '  the  like,1 '  an  eye 
for  an  eye ')  ;  the  wrong  could  be 
satisfied,  however,  by  pecuniary 
compensation  at  a  scale  fixed  by  the 
judge.  Slight  bodily  harm  (oifrac- 
tiiin  aut  collisnin')  \vas  punishable 
bv  a  fine  of  three  hundred  asses 


252 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

vero  fractum  nummariae  poenae  erant  constitutae  quasi  in 
magna  veterum  paupertate.  Sed  postea  praetores  per- 
mittebant  ipsis  qui  iniuriam  passi  sunt  earn  aestimare,  ut 
iudex  vel  tanti  condemnet,  quanti  iniuriam  passus  aesti- 
5  maverit,  vel  minoris,  prout  ei  visum  fuerit.  Sed  poena 
quidem  iniuriae,  quae  ex  lege  duodecim  tabularum  intro- 
ducta  est,  in  desuetudinem  abiit;  quam  autem  praetores 
introduxerunt,  quae  etiam  honoraria  appellatur,  in  iudiciis 
frequentatur.  Nam  secundum  gradum  dignitatis  vitaeque 

10  honestatem  crescit  aut  minuitur  aestimatio  iniuriae ;  qui 
gradus  condemnations  et  in  servili  persona  non  immerito 
servatur,  ut  aliud  in  servo  actore,  aliud  in  medii  actus 
homine,  aliud  in  vilissimo  vel  compedito  constituatur. 
Sed  et  lex  Cornelia  de  iniuriis  loquitur  et  iniuriarum  ac- 

15  tionem  introduxit.  Quae  competit  ob  earn  rem,  quod  se 
pulsatum  quis  verberatumve  domumve  suam  vi  introitam 
esse  dicat.  Domum  autem  accipimus,  sive  in  propria 
domo  quis  habitat  sive  in  conducta  vel  gratis  sive  hospitio 


(about  $15)  for  an  injured  freeman  if  condemned,  was  made  infamous 

and  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  asses  (infamid).    According  to  the  lex 

foraslave.  Other  injuries  were  pun-  Cornelia  (81  A.D.)  a  special  action 

ishable  by  a  fine  of  twenty-five  asses  was    given    in    cases    of   serious 

(about  $1.25).    Subsequently,  the  assault  or  forcible  entry  (pulsa- 

praetor   recognized   the    substitu-  turn,  verberatum,  dotnum   vi  in- 

tion    of    damages    for    the    more  troitavi).     Verberare  is  to  beat  or 

savage  law  of  retaliation,  and  in-  wound ;    pulsare   is    to    push   or 

stead  of  fixed  penalties,  he  allowed  strike  with  painless  blow  (yerbe- 

an  actio  iniuriarum  aestimatoria,  rare  est  ctim  dolore  caedere,  pul- 

by  which  the  penalty  varied  accord-  sare   sine   dolore).     The   injured 

ing  to  the  circumstances   of  the  party  had  the  option  of  proceeding 

case  (secnnditm  gradum  dignitatis  by  a  civil  action  or  by  a  criminal 

vitaeqite  honestateni)  as  estimated  prosecution. 

by  the  judge  (ex  aequo  et  bond) .  8.    in  iudiciis  frequentatur :    is 

Under  this  action  the  defendant,  now  observed  in  the  courts, 

253 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

receptus  sit.  Atrox  iniuria  aestimatur  vel  ex  facto,  veluti 
si  quis  ab  aliquo  vulneratus  fuerit  vel  f ustibus  caesus ;  vel 
ex  loco,  veluti  si  cui  in  theatro  vel  in  foro  vel  in  conspectu 
praetoris  iniuria  facta  sit ;  vel  ex  persona,  veluti  si  magis- 
5  tratus  iniuriam  passus  fuerit,  vel  si  senatori  ab  humili 
iniuria  facta  sit,  aut  parenti  patronoque  fiat  a  liberis  vel 
libertis ;  aliter  enim  senatoris  et  parentis  patronique,  aliter 
extranei  et  humilis  personae  iniuria  aestimatur.  Nonnum- 
quam  et  locus  vulneris  atrocem  iniuriam  facit,  veluti  si  in 

10  oculo  quis  percussus  sit.  Parvi  autem  refert,  utrum  patri 
familias  an  filio  familias  talis  iniuria  facta  sit ;  nam  et  haec 
atrox  aestimabitur.  In  summa  sciendum  est  de  omni  iniu- 
ria eum  qui  passus  est  posse  vel  criminaliter  agere  vel 
civiliter.  Et  si  quidem  civiliter  agatur,  aestimatione  facta 

15  secundum  quod  dictum  est  poena  imponitur.  Sin  autem 
criminaliter,  officio  iudicis  extraordinaria  poena  reo  irro- 
gatur.  Non  solum  autem  is  iniuriarum  tenetur  qui  fecit 
iniuriam,  hoc  est  qui  percussit ;  verum  ille  quoque  contine- 
bitur,  qui  dolo  fecit  vel  qui  curavit,  ut  cui  mala  pugno 

i.    Atrox    iniuria:    an    injury  gravated  injury  was  condemned  to 

might  be  aggravated  by  the  means  the  mines  ;  if  guilty  of  an  ordinary 

employed  in  accomplishing  the  act  injury,  he  might   be  surrendered 

(ex facto)  •  or  by  the  nature  of  the  noxally  or  delivered   over  to  the 

place   where  the   act   was   perpe-  offended  party  to  be  whipped. 

trated  (ex loco)  ;  or  by  the  quality  16.   extraordinaria   poena:    of- 

of  the  persons  receiving  and  in-  fenses  of  a  public  character  were 

flicting  the  injury  (ex  persona)  \  usually  tried  criminally  before  the 

or  by  the  part  of  the  body  injured  praetor   himself  (extra   ordinew) 

(loco vulneris).     Incasccfftuwia  without  reference  of  the  case  to  a 

atrox  the  praetor  fixed  the  maxi-  judge.      Some    of    the    penalties 

mum  of  damages  (usually  at  the  mentioned  are  death,  banishment, 

amount  of  bail),  which  the  judge  and  relegation.     The  proceeding 

regularly  allowed  in  case  of  con-  extra  ordinein  was  the  more  usual 

viction.     A  slave  guilty  of  an  ag-  in  the  later  law. 

254 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


percuteretur.  Haec  actio  dissimulatione  aboletur  ;  et  ideo, 
si  quis  iniuriam  dereliquerit,  hoc  est  statim  passus  ad  ani- 
mum  suum  non  revocaverit,  postea  ex  paenitentia  remissam 
iniuriam  non  poterit  recolere. 

OBLIGATIONS  QVASI  EX  DELICTO 


Inst.  4,  5 


Si  index  litem  suam  fecerit,  non  proprie  ex 
maleficio  obligatus  videtur.  Sed  quia  neque 
ex  contractu  obligatus  est  et  utique  peccasse  aliquid  intel- 
legitur,  licet  per  imprudentiam ;  ideo  videtur  quasi  ex 


i.  dissimulatione :  a  right  of 
action  for  insult  was  extinguished 
if  the  affront  was  not  resented  at 
once  or  was  passed  over  in  silence. 
The  right  to  sue  thus  lost  did  not 
revive,  and,  in  all  cases  by  the 
praetorian  law,  proceedings  must 
be  begun  within  the  judicial  year 
following  the  offense  (annits 
ntilts). 

Obligations  quasi  ex  Delicto : 
the  delicts  already  noticed  do  not 
exhaust  the  list  of  wrongful  acts 
creating  legal  obligations.  Quasi 
delicts  are  cases  of  wrongdoing 
merely  resembling  delicts  in  sub- 
stance, but  exactly  like  them  in 
rendering  the  offender  liable  to  a 
penalty  or  damages  in  a  civil  suit. 
The  characteristic  requirements  of 
delicts,  technically  so  called,  were 
damage  to  the  property  of  another 
(dammtni)  or  injury  to  the  person 
of  another  (iniuria),  done  with 
evil  intent  (dohts)  or  through  cul- 
pable negligence  (culpa).  Most 
of  the  quasi  delicts,  as  given  in  the 


Institutes  of  Justinian,  however, 
include  actions  granted  by  the 
praetor  against  persons  who 
neither  directly  caused  damage  nor 
had  any  evil  intent  in  the  wrong 
done,  though  the  law  presumed 
them  to  have  been  in  a  position  to 
prevent  the  wrong.  This  applies 
to  all  quasi  delicts  in  the  text,  ex- 
cept the  first  mentioned  (iudex qui 
litem  suatn  fecerif) . 

5.  Si  iudex  litem  suam  fecerit : 
a  judge  was  said  to  '  make  a  cause 
his  own '  when  he  was  guilty  of 
corrupt  motives  or  negligence  (in- 
cluding a  violation  of  the  rules  of 
law  through  ignorance,  per  impru- 
dentiam :  imperitia  culpae  adnu- 
tneratur')  in  the  performance  of 
his  official  duties.  A  judge  treated 
the  case  as  his  own,  e.g.  when  he 
imposed  a  heavier  penalty  than 
was  named  in  the  praetor's  formula 
or  in  the  statute.  He  was  liable 
for  damages  in  a  civil  suit  brought 
by  the  injured  party.  It  should 
be  noticed  that  'judge'  is  here 


255 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

maleficio  teneri,  et  in  quantum  de  ea  re  aequum  religion! 
iudicantis  videbitur,  poenani  sustinebit.  Item  is,  ex  cuius 
cenaculo  vel  proprio  ipsius  vel  conducto  vel  in  quo  gratis 
habitabat  deiectum  effusumve  aliquid  est,  ita  ut  alicui 
5  noceretur,  quasi  ex  maleficio  obligatus  intellegitur ;  ideo 
autem  non  proprie  ex  maleficio  obligatus  intellegitur,  quia 
plerumque  ob  alterius  culpam  tenetur  aut  servi  aut  liberi. 
Cui  similis  est  is,  qui  ea  parte,  qua  vulgo  iter  fieri  solet,  id 
positum  aut  suspensum  habet,  quod  potest,  si  ceciderit, 


used  in  the  Roman  sense  (index, 
i.e.  a  private  person  exercising 
functions  similar  in  some  respects 
to  both  judge  and  juror  in  our 
judicial  system).  The  Roman 
judge,  though  a  layman,  was  ren- 
dered liable  for  ignorance  of  law 
because  he  had  free  access  to  the 
praetor  for  construction  of  edicts 
and  law  involved  in  the  case,  and 
it  was  the  duty  of  the  index, 
furthermore,  to  take  advice  of  the 
tun's  prndentes  on  knotty  points. 
7.  ob  alterius  culpam  tenetur : 
persons  hurling  or  pouring  things 
from  the  windows  or  roof  of  the 
large  and  numerously  tenanted 
apartment  houses  of  Rome  (cena- 
cula)  could  generally  be  detected 
only  indirectly  from  the  place  out 
of  which  the  damage  came.  The 
praetor,  therefore,  gave  the  actio 
de  deiecto  effnsove  against  the  oc- 
cupier of  the  premises,  though  he 
personally  did  no  wrong.  The 
latter  had  redress  against  the  ac- 
tual wrongdoer,  e.g.  a  lodger  or 
guest.  The  liability  for  this  quasi 


delict  was  for  double  the  damage 
done  (actio  mix  to) .  If  the  testi- 
mony of  Juvenal,  Sat.  3,  268-274, 
is  to  be  relied  on,  there  must  have 
been  much  need  of  this  remedy  in 
his  day.  Cf.  D.  9,  3,  I  ;  44,  7, 

5>  5- 

9.  positum  aut  suspensum : 
though  no  damage  had  actually  been 
done  to  another,  the  praetor  granted 
the  actiode  posito  (exposito)  ct  sns- 
penso  against  any  one  who  placed 
or  hung  anything  from  the  eaves 
or  any  projection  overhead,  which 
might  do  damage  to  any  person 
passing  or  standing  below  in  a 
public  thoroughfare  or  place. 
This  action  for  the  recovery  of  a 
private  penalty  was  open  to  any 
one  interested,  i.e.  it  was  an  actio 
popnlaris,  or  an  action  open  to 
any  informer  who  could  bring 
suit,  not  merely  to  enforce  his 
own  private  right,  but  rather  a 
right  of  the  public.  Although 
the  law  was  of  the  nature  of 
a  police  regulation,  the  plaintiff 
could  retain  the  penalty. 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

alicui  nocere ;  quo  casu  poena  decem  aureorum  constituta 
est.  De  eo  vero  quod  deiectum  effusumve  est  dupli  quanti 
damnum  datum  sit  constituta  est  actio.  Ob  hominem  vero 
liberum  occisum  quinquaginta  aureorum  poena  constituitur; 
5  si  vero  vivet  nocitumque  ei  esse  dicetur,  quantum  ob  earn 
rem  aequum  iudici  videtur,  actio  datur ;  iudex  enim  com- 
putare  debet  mercedes  medicis  praestitas  ceteraque  im- 
pendia,  quae  in  curatione  facta  sunt,  praeterea  operarum, 
quibus  caruit  aut  cariturus  est  ob  id  quod  inutilis  factus 

10  est.  Si  films  familias  seorsum  a  patre  habitaverit  et  quid 
ex  cenaculo  eius  deiectum  effusumve  sit,  sive  quid  positum 
suspensumve  habuerit,  cuius  casus  periculosus  est ;  luliano 
placuit  in  patrem  nullam  esse  actionem,  sed  cum  ipso  filio 
agendum.  Quod  et  in  filio  familias  iudice  observandum 

15  est,  qui  litem  suam  fecerit.  Item  exercitor  navis  aut  cau- 
ponae  aut  stabuli  de  dolo  aut  furto,  quod  in  nave  aut  in 
caupona  aut  in  stabulo  factum  erit,  quasi  ex  maleficio 
teneri  videtur,  si  modo  ipsius  nullum  est  maleficium, 
sed  alicuius  eorum,  quorum  opera  navem  aut  cauponam 

20  aut  stabulum  exerceret ;  cum  enim  neque  ex  contractu  sit 
adversus  eum  constituta  haec  actio  et  aliquatenus  culpae 
reus  est,  quod  opera  malorum  hominum  uteretur,  ideo 
quasi  ex  maleficio  teneri  videtur.  In  his  autem  casibus  in 
factum  actio  competit,  quae  heredi  quidem  datur,  adversus 

25  heredem  autem  non  competit. 

Animalium  nomine,  quae   ratione   carent,   si 
quidem    lascivia   aut   fervore  aut  feritate   pau- 

15.  exercitor  navis  :  by  the  prae-  wrongs   committed   by  their  ser- 

torian  actio  doli  et  furti  ad-versus  vants  for  double  the  value  of  the 

nautas,caupones,stalntlarios,*\ivp-  thing  injured  or  lost.     Here  the 

owners,    innkeepers,    and    livery-  principal  (exercitor}  was  liable  not 

stable  keepers  were  liable  for  the  for  any  direct  fault  of  his   own 

ROMAN    LAW  —  17  257 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

periem  fecerint,  noxalis  actio  lege  duodecim  tabularum 
prodita  est  (quae  animalia  si  noxae  dedantur,  proficiunt 
reo  ad  liberationem,  quia  ita  lex  duodecim  tabularum 
scripta  est);  puta  si  equus  calcitrosus  cake  percusserit 
5  aut  bos  cornu  petere  solitus  petierit.  Haec  autem  actio 
in  his,  quae  contra  naturam  moventur,  locum  habet ;  cete- 
rum  si  genitalis  sit  feritas,  cessat.  Denique  si  ursus  fugit 
a  domino  et  sic  nocuit,  non  potest  quondam  dominus  con- 
veniri,  quia  desinit  dominus  esse,  ubi  fera  evasit.  Pau- 

10  peries  autem  est  damnum  sine  iniuria  facientis  datum ; 
nee  enim  potest  animal  iniuriam  fecisse  dici,  quod  sensu 
caret.  Haec  quod  ad  noxalem  actionem  pertinet.  Cete- 
rum  sciendum  est  aedilicio  edicto  prohiberi  nos  canem, 
verrem,  aprum,  ursum,  leonem  ibi  habere,  qua  vulgo  iter 

15  fit ;  et  si  adversus  ea  factum  erit  et  nocitum  homini  libero 
esse  dicetur,  quod  bonum  et  aequum  iudici  videtur,  tanti 
dominus  condemnetur,  ceterarum  rerum,  quanti  damnum 
datum  sit,  dupli.  Praeter  has  autem  aedilicias  actiones 


other  than   his  selection  of  dis-  granted     which     compelled     the 

honest  sen-ants.     The  person  in-  owner  of  an  animal  (not  restricted 

jured   might  also  bring  an   actio  to  quadrupeds)  to  repair  the  harm 

furti  or  legis  Aquiliae  against  the  (JHRtpcries)    done   by  it   or  else 

actual  offender.  surrender  it  to  the  injured  party 

i.   noxalis  actio :  it  has  already  (actio  de  pauperie}.     The  owner 

been  noticed  that  for  any  delict  at  the  time  of  suit  is  liable,  not  the 

committed  by  a  slave  the  master  owner  at  the  time  of  the   injury 

is  rendered  liable  to  a  noxal  action  (no.ra  caput  sequitiir} .     The  harm 

(cf.  note  on  indicium,  p.  240).    In  must  also  be  caused  by  the  animal 

this  case,  the  master  may  assume  acting  contrary  to  its  natural  dis- 

directly  the  responsibility  for  the  position  {contra  nattirani). 
delict,  or  surrender  the  slave   to  13.  aedilicio  edicto  :  the  general 

the  injured  party  (noxae  deditio).  police   supervision   of  the   aedile 

By  a    curious    provision    of   the  appears  from  this  text.      Cf.  also 

Twelve    Tables,    an    action    was  note  on  et,  p.  60. 

258 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


et  de  pauperie  locum  habebit ;  numquam  enim  actiones 
praesertim  poenales  de  eadem  re  concurrentes  alia  aliam 
consumit. 

THE  LAW  OF  INHERITANCE  (Hereditas} 


Gai.  2,  97 


Hactenus  tantisper  admonuisse  sufficit  quem- 
admodum  singulae  res  nobis  adquirantur.  Nam 
legatorum  ius,  quo  et  ipso  singulas  res  adquirimus,  oppor- 
tunius  alio  loco  referemus.  Videamus  itaque  nunc,  quibus 
modis  per  universitatem  res  nobis  adquirantur.  Ac  prius 
de  hereditatibus  dispiciamus. 

10  luiian.  D.  Hereditas  nihil  aliud  est,  quam  successio  in 

50, 17, 62        universum  ius  quod  def unctus  habuerit. 


8.  per  universitatem  res  adquir- 
antur :  having  treated  of  the  way  in 
which  rights  over  particular  tilings 
(res  singulae)  are  acquired  (cf.  text 
and  note  on  Acquisition,  p.  1 65),  the 
Institutes  of  Gaius  and  Justinian 
proceed  to  the  modes  of  acquiring 
rights  per  universitatem,  i.e.  the 
acquisition  of  all  the  rights  and 
duties  of  another  in  one  mass  or 
entirety  (universitas  rerum,  as  a 
unit, 'in  one  bundle1).  This  com- 
plete succession  to  the  entire  legal 
personality  of  another  may  be  ac- 
complished in  several  ways,  of 
which  the  most  important  are 
arrogation  and  inheritance.  For 
arrogation  see  note  p.  135  and  text. 
By  the  Roman  law  of  succession 
the  entire  property  of  a  deceased 
person  (defunct  us},  with  the  ex- 
ception of  those  rights  and  duties 


which  are  distinctly  personal  and, 
therefore,  perished  with  him,  con- 
stituted his  inheritance.  This 
estate  remains  a  unit  (universitas 
tun's).  In  theory  it  is  not  divided 
piecemeal  and  scattered  among  the 
heirs.  Each  heir  succeeds  to  the 
entire  estate  as  a  unit,  not  to  any 
individual  thing  belonging  to  the 
estate,  i.e.  the  heirs  (whether  one 
or  more)  succeed  per  universita- 
tem to  the  exact  legal  position  of 
the  deceased  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  inheriting  his  rights  and 
obligations  so  far  as  they  have  not 
perished  with  him  (hereditas  nihil 
aliud  est,  quam  successio  in  uni- 
versum ius  quod  defunctus  habu- 
erit, D.  50,  17,  62;  hereditas 
personae  defuncti,  qui  earn  reli- 
guz't,  vice  fungitur,  D.  30,  116, 
3)- 


259 


SELECTED   TEXTS   PROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Pompon.  D.        Heres  in  omne  ius  mortui,  non  tantum  singu- 
29.  2, 37          larum  rerum  dominium  succedit,  cum  et  ea,  quae 
in  nominibus  sint,  ad  heredem  transeant. 
Mian.  D.  Lex  duodecim  tabularum  eum  vocat  ad  he- 

5  38>  I6>  6  reditatem,  qui  moriente  eo,  de  cuius  bonis  quae- 
ritur,  in  rerum  natura  fuerit,  vel  si  vivo  eo  conceptus  est, 
Ceisus,  D.  quia  conceptus  quodammodo  in  rerum  natura 
38, 16, 7  esse  existimatur. 

Fioren.  D.  Heres  quandoque  adeundo  hereditatem  iam 

10  29-  2, 54         tune  a  morte  successisse  def uncto  intellegitur. 


3.  in  nominibus  :  liabilities.  No- 
men  was  originally  the  name  of  the 
debtor  and  item  of  debt  entered  in 
the  domestic  ledger  of  the  creditor. 
From  that  it  came  to  mean  the  obli- 
gation arising  from  any  debitutn 
(see  notes  on  Litteris  and  Fit,  p. 
206-7) .  By  the  very  nature  of  uni- 
versal succession,  the  heir,  as  fam- 
ily representative  of  the  deceased, 
succeeded  not  only  to  the  property 
but  also  to  the  liabilities,  i.e.  to  the 
entire  legal  personality  of  the  de- 
ceased (modified  by  the  praetor 
by  the  ius  abstinendi,  see  below, 
note  on  Heredes,  p.  282). 

6.  si  vivo  eo  conceptus  est :  see 
note  on  Qui,  p.  78. 

9.  adeundo  hereditatem  :  de- 
ferre  and  adire  are  technical  terms 
marking  two  important  stages  in  the 
devolution  of  an  estate.  Delatio 
(or  hereditas  delatd)  is  the  offer 
of  the  inheritance  to  the  one  enti- 
tled to  become  heir,  so  that  he 
has  merely  to  decide  whether  he 
will  accept  or  refuse  ;  aditio  {here- 


ditas adita)  is  the  acceptance  of 
the  heirship.  This  may  not  occur 
until  the  assets  and  liabilities  have 
been  duly  inquired  into.  Delatio, 
or  the  offer,  is  made  in  one  of  two 
ways,  by  testament  or  by  operation 
of  law  (Iiereditas  testamentaria, 
hereditas  ab  infest  at  o) . 

10.  a  morte  successisse  :  in  the 
interval  between  death  and  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  inheritance  by  the 
heir  (qiiain vis  postea  adeatur),  the 
estate  has  an  independent  legal 
existence  as  an  artificial  person. 
Although  the  owner  of  the  prop- 
erty is  dead,  the  estate  is  not  a 
derelict  to  be  seized  by  the  first 
occupier,  but  is  in  the  eye  of 
the  law  an  independent  person, 
called  hereditas  iacens,  which 
has  the  powers  of  a  natural  per- 
son to  acquire  rights  and  to 
incur  obligations,  e.g.  slaves  be- 
longing to  the  inheritance  may 
enter  into  lawful  agreements  to 
acquire  for  its  benefit  and  they 
mav  become  heirs  to  other  estates 


260 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Omnis  hereditas,  quamvis  postea  adeatur,  ta- 
men  cum  tempore  mortis  continuatur. 

Quam  diu  potest  ex  testamento  adiri  heredi- 
tas, ab  intestate  non  defertur. 

I  us  nostrum  non  patitur  eundem  in  paganis 
et  testato  et  intestate  decessisse ;  earumque  re- 
rum  naturaliter  inter  se  pugna  est  'testatus'  et  'intesta- 
tus.' 

Mod.  D.  Testamentum    est    voluntatis    nostrae    iusta 

10  28, !.  i  sententia  de  eo,  quod  quis  post  mortem  suam 

fieri  velit. 


Paul.  D. 

s°- 17- 138 

UIp.  D. 
29,  2,  39 

5   Pompon.  D. 
5°,  i/.  7 


in  the  interest  of  the  inheritance 
of  which  they  form  a  part.  When 
the  hereditas  is  once  vested  in  the 
heir  (i.e.  after  aditid),  his  succes- 
sion dates  from  the  moment  of  the 
deceased's  death. 

3.  Quam  diu  potest  ex  testamen- 
to adiri  hereditas  :  inheritance  may 
devolve  upon  the  heir  by  testament 
and  by  operation  of  law,  whence 
arises  the  distinction  between 
testamentary  succession  (testa- 
mentaria  hereditas)  and  intestate 
or  legal  succession  (legitima  here- 
ditas, ab  intestato).  The  latter 
occurs  only  in  the  absence  of  a 
valid  testament.  Since  the  inher- 
itance is  viewed  as  an  entirety 
(uni'versitas  reruni)  and  a  testa- 
ment takes  precedence  over  intes- 
tate succession,  the  one  excluding 
the  other  (inter  se  pugna  est),  if  a 
testator  should  nominate  an  heir 
for  part  of  his  property  only,  the 
legal  heirs  (Jieredes  legitittti)  do 
not  succeed  to  the  remaining  part, 


but  the  will  disposes  of  the  entire 
estate  (nemo  pro  parte  testatus, 
pro  parte  intestatus  decedere  po- 
test). For  exception  in  case  of 
soldiers  see  below,  note  on  Mili- 
tibus,  p.  269. 

9.  Testamentum  est  voluntatis : 
the  primary  purpose  and  essential 
requirement  of  a  Roman  will  was 
the  appointment  of  an  heir,  not 
the  disposition  of  an  estate.  The 
Romans  did  not  originate  the 
testament,  but  they  very  early  felt 
the  importance  of  will-making  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  dying 
without  a  representative  to  perform 
the  sacred  rites  of  the  dead,  to 
protect  the  memory  of  the  testator, 
and  to  obviate  the  injustice  to  cog- 
nates which  arose  under  the  early 
law  of  intestate  succession.  They 
became  a  nation  of  will-makers 
and  developed  a  detailed  system 
of  testamentary  law  (iure  civili), 
with  features  peculiarly  Roman. 
Although  intestate  succession  is 


261 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN    LAW 


Labeo,  D.  In  e°  qui  testatur  eius  temporis,  quo  testa- 

28,  i,  2  mentum    facit,   integritas   mentis,   non  corporis 

sanitas  exigenda  est. 

Gai.  D.  Si  quaeramus,  an  valeat  testamentum,  in  pri- 

5  28,1,4  mis  animadvertere    debemus,  an  is  qui  fecerit 

testamentum  habuerit  testament!  factionem,  deinde,  si 
habuerit,  requiremus,  an  secundum  regulas  iuris  civilis 
testatus  sit. 

Filius  familiae  testamentum  facere  non  potest. 

Ulp.  20,  10  .....  .       . 

10  quoniam  nihil  suum  habet,  ut  testan  de  eo  pos- 


historically  the  older,  Gaius  and 
Justinian  treat  of  the  testament 
first,  as  if  it  were  the  more  im- 
portant. Our  word  will  is  a 
translation  of  voluntas,  a  choice, 
or  expression  of  intention,  but  it 
does  not,  like  our  English  word, 
indicate  the  written  instrument 
itself.  The  false  etymology  of 
testamentum  by  Servius  Sulpicius, 
discussed  by  Gellius  7,  12,  2,  is 
repeated  by  Ulpian  and  Justin- 
ian, Inst.  2,  10:  testamentum  ex 
eo  appellatur,  quod  test  at  io  mentis 
est  (as  if  the  suffix  -mentum  were 
from  metis,  cf.  vestimentum,  ali- 
ment um,  '  et  alia  mille ') .  See 
also  notes  on  curias,  p.  45,  and 
quasi,  p.  106.  —  iusta  sententia: 
iusta,  '  according  to  legal  formali- 
ties,' see  note  on  ex  iusta,  p.  81. 

6.  testament!  factionem :  this 
term  signifies  the  capacity  to  take 
any  part  in  the  making  of  a  will  or 
to  receive  any  benefit  under  a  will, 
i.e.  testator,  witnesses,  and  heir 
must  have  testamenti  factio  with 


one  another,  or  the  capacity  re- 
quired by  law  to  perform  their 
several  parts.  Capacity  to  make 
a  will  (testamenti  factio  activa) 
requires  capacity  to  be  owner  and 
to  alienate  as  owner.  It  is,  there- 
fore, denied  those  who  lack  inde- 
pendent judgment  or  powers  of 
volition  and  perfect  capacity  of 
disposition  (impuberes,  fttriosi, 
prodigi).  The  ci-vis  Romanus 
paterfamilias  alone  has  complete 
testamentary  capacity.  T\\&  filius- 
familias  can,  however,  make  testa- 
mentary disposition  of  his  peculiuin 
castrense  and  quasi  castrense. 
Certain  persons,  unable  to  make  a 
testament  in  the  usual  way,  must 
conform  to  certain  special  provi- 
sions of  law  (deaf,  mute,  blind,  and 
those  unable  to  write).  Incapac- 
ity to  make  a  will  does  not  neces- 
sarily exclude  one  from  being  heir 
or  witness,  i.e.  having  testamenti 
factio passh>a  (Inst.  2,  19,  4). 

9.   Filius  familiae  testamentum 
facere  non  potest :  in  the  law  of  the 


262 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE    ROMAN   LAW 

sit.  Sed  divus  Augustus  constituit,  ut  films  familiae  miles 
de  eo  peculio  quod  in  castris  adquisivit  testamentum  facere 
possit.  Qui  de  statu  suo  incertus  est  factus,  quod  patre 
peregre  mortuo  ignorat  se  sui  iuris  esse,  facere  testamen- 
5  turn  non  potest.  Impubes,  licet  sui  iuris  sit,  facere  testa- 
mentum non  potest, quoniam  nondum  plenum  indicium  animi 
habet.  Mutus,  surdus,  furiosus  itemque  prodigus  cui  lege 
bonis  interdictum  est,  testamentum  facere  non  possunt: 
mutus,  quoniam  verba  nuncupationis  loqui  non  potest; 
10  surdus,  quoniam  verba  familiae  emptoris  exaudire  non  po- 
test; furiosus,  quoniam  mentem  non  habet,  ut  testari  de 
sua  re  possit;  prodigus,  quoniam  commercio  illi  interdic- 


T&gub\ic_filiifamtltas  had  no  active 
proprietary  capacity,  i.e.  they  were 
not  free  to  alienate  and  could  ac- 
quire only.  Under  Augustus,  sol- 
diers were  freed  from  this  disability 
by  special  privilege.  This  became 
a  permanent  rule  under  Trajan 
(see  below,  note  on  Militibus,  p. 
269).  In  the  management  and  dis- 
position of  all  property  acquired  by 
reason  of  military  service  (pecu- 
liuin  castrense),  a  filiusfamilias 
miles  was  considered  free  from  the 
power  of  his  father.  The peculium 
castrense  included  all  property  ac- 
quired by  a  soldier  as  pay,  what- 
ever was  given  or  bequeathed  to 
him  for  campaign  purposes,  all  ac- 
quisitions from  fellow-soldiers,  and 
land  purchased  by  savings  from 
his  pay.  In  the  later  empire 
(after  Constantine),  government 
and  court  officials,  advocates,  the 
clergy,  and  those  especially  favored 
by  the  emperor,  though  fi!iifa- 


milias,  were  allowed  free  disposi- 
tion of  their  earnings,  as  if  engaged 
in  the  public  service  like  soldiers 
(quasi  castrense) . 

3.  incertus  est  factus  :  in  addi- 
tion to  the  uncertainty  whether 
the  paterfamilias  away  from  home 
was  alive  or  dead,  persons  in  any 
other  way  uncertain  of  their  status, 
as  whether  they  had  been  properly 
emancipated  and  were  free  persons 
in  law  and  fact,  were  unable  to 
make  a  will  (gui  incertus  de  statu 
suo  est,  certam  legem  testamento 
dicer e  non  potest,  D.  28,  i,  14). 

n.  furiosus  quoniam  mentem 
non  habet  :  the  furiosus  could, 
however,  make  a  will  during  a  lucid 
interval,  and  a  will  made  before  he 
was  mentally  incapacitated  was 
valid.  In  case  of  the  prodigus 
also,  a  will  made  before  the  formal 
bonis  inter dictio  of  the  praetor  was 
valid.  Cf.  note  on  Curatores, 
p.  155. 


563 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


turn  est  et  ob  id  familiam  mancipare  non  potest.  Latinus 
lunianus,  item  is  qui  dediticiorum  numero  est,  testamen- 
tum  facere  non  potest :  Latinus  quidem,  quoniam  nomina- 
tim  lege  lunia  prohibitus  est,  is  autem  qui  dediticiorum 

5  numero  est,  quoniam  nee  quasi  civis  Romanus  testari  po- 
test, cum  sit  peregrinus,  nee  quasi  peregrinus,  quoniam 
nullius  certae  civitatis  civis  est,  ut  secundum  leges  civitatis 
suae  testetur.  Feminae  post  duodecimum  annum  aetatis 
testamenta  facere  possunt  tutore  auctore,  donee  in  tutela 

10  sunt.  Servus  publicus  populi  Romani  partis  dimidiae 
testamenti  faciendi  habet  ius. 


4.  lege  lunia  :  see  text  and  note 
on  Liber  tor  urn,  p.  89. 

8.  Feminae  post  duodecimum  an- 
num :  in  the  most  ancient  times, 
women  could  not  make  wills  because 
they  were  excluded  from  the  public 
assembly  and  the  army  (calatis 
coftn'tiis,  in  procinctii).  After  the 
testament  per  aes  et  libram  was 
introduced,  women  (j;//  inn's) 
were  capable,  but  inasmuch  as  they 
were  under  guardianship  (unless 
relieved  by  the  lex  Papia  Poppaea* 
see  text  and  note  on  ex  lege.  p.  152), 
they  required  the  authority  of  their 
guardians.  To  obviate  this  diffi- 
culty, the  jurists  devised  a  fictitious 
marriage  with  manus  (coemptio 
fiduciaria).  The  ward  conveyed 
herself  by  mancipatio  to  her  hus- 
band (see  note  on  Coeinptione, 
p.  126),  who  reconveyed  her  by 
remancipation,  in  accordance  with 
a  trust  obligation  (Jldttcfof  causa), 
to  a  third  person,  by  whom  she 
was  finally  manumitted.  In  this 


way  the  woman  obtained  a  status 
which  gave  her  testamentary  ca- 
pacity. Vestal  virgins,  being  free 
from  patria  potestas  and  from 
guardianship,  had  from  very  early 
times  capacity  to  make  a  will.  As 
they  had  no  legal  heirs  (and  could 
be  heir  to  no  one),  if  they  died 
intestate,  their  property  escheated 
to  the  state  (Cell,  i,  12,  18). 

10.  Servus  publicus  :  testamenti 
factio  activa  required  of  the  testa- 
tor the  possession  of  the  ius  com- 
mercii.  This  excluded  slaves  and 
those  in  a  similar  status,  but  slaves 
of  the  Populus  Romanus  were  by 
special  privilege  capable  of  dispos- 
ing by  testament  of  half  of  their 
peculium.  Slaves  captured  in  war 
became  the  property  of  the  state. 
Some  were  sold  in  open  market 
under  supervision  of  the  aediles, 
while  others  were  retained  as  prop- 
erty of  the  Roman  people  and 
were  assigned  to  various  public 
duties.  The  exact  legal  position 


264 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Gai.  i,  115 


Olim  etiam  testament!  faciendi  gratia  fiduci- 
aria  fiebat  coemptio ;  tune  enim  non  aliter  femi- 
nae  testament!  faciendi  ius  habebant,  exceptis  quibusdam 
personis,  quam  si  coemptionem  fecissent  remancipataeque 
S  et  manumissae  f  uissent ;  sed  hanc  necessitatem  coemp- 
tionis  faciendae  ex  auctoritate  divi  Hadriani  senatus 
remisit. 

Testamentorum  autem  genera  initio  duo  fue- 

Gai.  2,  101 

runt :     nam    aut    calatis    comitiis    testamentum 
10  faciebant,  quae  comitia  bis  in  anno  testamentis  faciendis 


of  servi  publici  is  not  entirely 
understood.  That  they  had  privi- 
leges not  granted  private  slaves  is 
certain.  They  were  almost  en- 
tirely of  the  male  sex,  often  occu- 
pied public  quarters,  received  a 
certain  sum  for  their  sustenance 
(cibaria),  and  were  capable  of  en- 
tering into  a  quasi  marriage  with  a 
free  woman.  In  this  fact  Momm- 
sen  sees  a  possible  explanation  of 
their  testamentary  capacity  over 
half  of  their  holdings  (Staatsrecht, 
i,32of.).  In  addition  to  those 
mentioned  in  the  text,  the  follow- 
ing were  incapable  of  making  a 
will :  those  condemned  for  libel 
(pb  carjnen  famosuni)  ;  those  out- 
lawed by  the  interdictio  aquae  et 
ignis ;  those  deported  to  an  island ; 
criminals  condemned  to  fight  as 
gladiators  (ad  ferrum),  to  fight 
with  beasts,  or  to  work  in  the  mines 
(servi poenae);  captives;  hostages. 
g.  calatis  comitiis  testamentum : 
the  oldest  form  of  will  was  of  a 


public  character.  In  the  earliest 
times  the  property  of  a  deceased 
paterfamilias  descended  to  his 
natural  heirs  by  the  operation  of 
law.  When  it  became  possible  to 
substitute  another  than  the  natural 
heir,  or  to  nominate  a  stranger  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  dying 
without  an  heir,  it  became  a  mat- 
ter of  importance  to  the  religious 
interests  of  the  state  and  to 
the  testator's  gens.  The  comitia 
curiata  was  summoned  (calare, 
calata  comitia)  twice  each  year 
(probably  the  24th  of  March  and 
the  24th  of  May)  to  sanction  and 
to  witness  the  wil'.s  of  citizens. 
The  pontiffs  supervised  the  pro- 
cedure. The  authority  to  direct 
the  devolution  of  an  estate  out  of 
the  regular  channel  required  a 
special  enactment,  a  testament 
(legem  testamento  dicere)  which 
took  the  form  and  character  of  a 
lex  enacted  by  the  people  (i.e. 
patricians). 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

destinata  erant,  aut  in  procinctu,  id  est  cum  belli  causa 
arma  sumebant;  procinctus  est  enim  expeditus  et  armatus 
exercitus.  Alterum  itaque  in  pace  et  in  otio  faciebant, 
alterum  in  proelium  exituri.  Accessit  deinde  tertium 
5  genus  testamenti,  quod  per  aes  et  libram  agitur.  Qui 
neque  calatis  comitiis  neque  in  procinctu  testamentum 
fecerat,  is  si  subita  morte  urguebatur,  amico  familiam 
suam,  id  est  patrimonium  suum,  mancipio  dabat,  eumque 
rogabat  quid  cuique  post  mortem  suam  dari  vellet.  Quod 


i.  in  procinctu:  the  inconven- 
ience of  making  a  will  in  the  formal 
assembly  would  be  especially  felt 
by  soldiers  in  active  service.  As 
the  army  in  the  field  in  the  earliest 
times  was  merely  a  body  of  citi- 
zens, the  counterpart  of  the  comi- 
tia  at  home,  every  soldier  was 
allowed  to  declare  his  will  orally, 
in  the  presence  of  his  comrades, 
when  about  to  enter  battle.  Serv. 
Aen.  10,  241. 

4.  Accessit  tertium  genus  testa- 
menti: the  will  made  per  aes  et 
libram  (inancipatio)  was  a  strictly 
private  will  of  very  ancient  origin, 
which  could  be  made  at  any  time 
and  was  especially  employed  in 
emergencies.  In  its  historical  de- 
velopment it  shows  two  phases,  in 
the  earlier  of  which  the  transaction 
is  entirely  oral ;  in  the  later,  it  is  the 
oral  confirmation  of  a  written  doc- 
ument. In  the  former  the  testator 
conveys,  with  all  the  formalities 
of  manicipation,  his  entire  property 
to  a  friend,  called  familiae  emptor, 
at  the  same  time  making  a  formal 


declaration  (nuncupatio)  that  the 
conveyance  is  for  the  purpose  of 
inheritance .  The  familiae  emptor 
is  made  heir  (or  as  Sohm  says, 
'  executor  of  the  will '),  upon  whom 
is  charged  the  duty  of  carrying  out 
the  provisions  of  the  will  according 
to  the  terms  of  the  nuncupatory 
part  of  the  transaction  declared 
in  the  presence  of  the  witnesses. 
Later  on,  when  writing  became 
more  common,  the  heir  is  named 
in  the  written  document  (testa- 
menti tabulae),  which  contained 
all  the  dispositions  of  the  testator. 
The  mancipatory  form  is  still  em- 
ployed, but  the  familiae  emptor, 
no  longer  heir,  is  retained  merely 
for  the  sake  of  form  {diets  gratia). 
The  nnncnpatio  is  a  formal  con- 
firmation of  this  document  as  a  last 
will,  fully  attested  by  the  five  wit- 
nesses, the  libripens,  and  ihe  fami- 
liae emptor.  The  testament  »m 
per  aes  et  libram  in  these  two 
phases  was  the  usual  will  of  the 
republican  and  classical  periods  of 
the  civil  law. 


266 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

testamentum  dicitur  per  aes  et  libram,  scilicet  quia  per  man- 
cipationem  peragitur.  Seel  ilia  quidem  duo  genera  testa- 
mentorum  in  desuetudinem  abierunt ;  hoc  vero  solum,  quod 
per  aes  et  libram  fit,  in  usu  retentum  est.  Sane  nunc 
5  aliter  ordinatur,  quam  olim  solebat.  Namque  olim  famil- 
iae  emptor,  id  est  qui  a  testatore  f  amiliam  accipiebat  man- 
cipio,  heredis  locum  obtinebat,  et  ob  id  ei  mandabat 
testator,  quid  cuique  post  mortem  suam  dari  vellet ;  nunc 
vero  alius  heres  testamento  instituitur,  a  quo  etiam  legata 

10  relinquuntur,  alius  dicis  gratia  propter  veteris  iuris  imita- 
tionem  familiae  emptor  adhibetur.  Eaque  res  ita  agitur : 
qui  facit  testamentum,  adhibitis,  sicut  in  ceteris  mancipa- 
tionibus,  quinque  testibus  civibus  Romanis  puberibus  et 
libripende,  postquam  tabulas  testament!  scripserit,  mancipat 

15  alicui  dicis  gratia  f  amiliam  suam;  in  qua  re  his  verbis 
familiae  emptor  utitur  '  familia  pecuniaque  tua  endo  man- 
datelam  custodelamque  meam,  quo  tu  iure  testamentum 
facere  possis  secundum  legem  publicam,  hoc  aere '  et  ut 
quidam  adiciunt  '  aeneaque  libra,  esto  mini  empta ' ;  deinde 

20  aere  percutit  libram,  idque  aes  dat  testatori  velut  pretii 
loco  ;  deinde  testator  tabulas  testamenti  tenens  ita  dicit 
'  haec  ita  ut  in  his  tabulis  cerisque  scripta  sunt,  ita  do,  ita 

14.  postquam  tabulas  testamen-  proceeding  per  aes  et  libram  em- 

ti  scripserit :  with  the  introduction  ployed   for  will-making  was   oral, 

of  writing,  it  became  usual  for  the  the  nuncupatio  in  the  later  phase 

testator  to  prepare,  or  have  pre-  of   this   form   of  will    being    the 

pared   for  him,  a  document  con-  more  important  part.    The  written 

taining   his  will.     This  was  pro-  document,  witnessed  by  seven  per- 

duced   before   the   witnesses  and  sons,  became   the  model   for  the 

sealed  by  them,  their  names  being  later  praetorian  will, 

attached  to  their  respective  seals.  22.  in  his  tabulis  cerisque :  wills 

This  form  had  the  advantage  of  might  be  written  on  wood,  parch - 

secrecy,  and  the  will  could  be  more  ment,  paper,  or  any  other  suitable 

easily  proved.    In  theory  the  whole  material,   but   the   will    described 

267 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


lego,  ita  tester  itaque  vos  Ouirites  testimonium  mihi  per- 
hibetote,'  et  hoc  dicitur  nuncupatio :  nuncupare  est  enim 
palam  nominare,  et  sane  quae  testator  specialiter  in  tabulis 
testament!  scripserit,  ea  videtur  general!  sermone  nominare 

5  atque  confirmare. 

Qui  in  potestate  testatoris  est  aut  familiae 
emptoris,  testis  aut  libripens  adhiberi  non  po- 
test,  quoniam  familiae  mancipatio  inter  testatorem  et  fami- 
liae emptorem  fit  et  ob  id  domestici  testes  adhibendi  non 

10  sunt.     Filio  familiam  emente  pater  eius  testis  esse   non 


Ulp.  20,  3 


here  was  written  with  a  stilus  on 
wax-covered  pieces  of  wood  (tabu- 
lae ceraeque).  The  term  tabulae 
was,  however,  used  for  a  will  writ- 
ten on  any  other  material,  and 
cera  was  used  for  the  pages  of  the 
tablets  (see  Hor.  Sat.  2,  5,  24). 
Tablets  used  for  wills  were  gen- 
erally of  three  or  more  leaves 
(triptycha,  polyptycha)  fastened  to- 
gether by  a  wire  passing  through 
the  wooden  rim  on  the  long  side 
of  the  tablet.  The  inner  leaves 
were  coated  with  wax  on  both  sides, 
the  two  outer,  only  on  the  inside. 
The  will  was  written  on  the  inner 
pages,  the  writing  running  the 
long  way  of  the  tablet.  To  avoid 
tampering  with  the  will  and  to 
secure  secrecy,  nothing  but  the 
name  of  the  testator  was  to  be 
written  on  the  first  two  inner  pages, 
which  alone  were  to  be  shown 
to  the  witnesses  (according  to  a 
SC  under  Nero).  The  whole 
tablet  was  fastened  together  into 
a  codex  by  strings  piercing  the 


rim,  and  the  document  was  then 
closed  and  secured  against  falsifi- 
cation by  the  attachment  of  the 
seals  of  the  five  witnesses,  the 
libripens,  and  \hefamiliae  emptor, 
each  one  adding  his  name.  There 
was  no  signing  of  the  will  at  the 
end,  but  it  was  customary  to  place 
the  date  there.  Many  provisions 
were  made  to  prevent  fraud,  by  the 
lex  Cornelia  testamentaria  (time 
of  Sulla's  dictatorship)  and  subse- 
quent laws. 

7.  testis  adhiberi  non  potest : 
those  disqualified  from  acting  as 
witnesses  were  :  slaves,  impuberes, 
madmen,  prodigals,  women,  the 
deaf,  the  dumb,  and  those  pro- 
nounced intestabiles,  i.e.  those 
whom  the  law  considers  as  dis- 
honest and  unworthy  to  take  part 
in  formal  legal  proceedings.  They 
were  those  convicted  of  bribing 
magistrates  (repetundarum  dani- 
natus')  •  of  libel  (ob  carmen  faino- 
sunt)  ;  of  adultery ;  and  in  Christian 
times,  heretics  and  apostates.  Wo- 


268 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


potest.  Ex  duobus  fratribus,  qui  in  eiusdem  patris  potes- 
tate  sunt,  alter  familiae  emptor,  alter  testis  esse  non  potest, 
quoniam  quod  unus  ex  his  mancipio  accipit  adquirit  patri, 
cui  films  suus  testis  esse  non  debet.  Mutus,  surdus,  furio- 
sus,  pupillus,  femina  neque  familiae  emptor  esse  neque  testis 
libripensve  fieri  potest.  Latinus  lunianus  et  familiae 
emptor  et  testis  et  libripens  fieri  potest,  quoniam  cum  eo 
testament!  factio  est 

uip.  D.  Qui  testamento  heres  instituitur,  in  eodem  tes- 

28,  i,  20         tamento  testis  esse  non  potest. 

Militibus  liberam  testamenti  factionem  primus 
quidem  divus  lulius  Caesar  concessit,  sed  ea  con- 
cessio  temporalis  erat.  Postea  vero  primus  divus  Titus  dedit, 
post  hoc  Domitianus,  postea  divus  Nerva  plenissiniam 


Ulp.  D. 

29,  i,  i 


men  could  not  be  witnesses  to  the 
ancient  will,  because  they  could 
not  appear  in  the  cot/titia,  but  long 
after  the  reason  for  this  disability 
had  passed  away,  with  character- 
istic adherence  to  old  forms,  the 
Romans  continued  this  restriction. 
A  close  relationship  of  the  parties 
caused  incapacity  to  witness  a  will, 
except  between  paterfamilias  and 
filiusfamilias  where  the  latter's 
will  disposed  of  his  peculium 
castrense. 

6.  Latinus  lunianus :  although 
by  the  ius  civile  Latini  could  not  be 
testators,  heirs,  or  legatees  (except 
in  case  of  the  wills  of  soldiers  in 
service),  they  could  be  witnesses 
because  they  had  commercium  and 
testamenti  factio  to  this  degree 
with  the  testator.  Cf.  note  on 
Libertorum,  p.  89. 


1 1 .  Militibus  liberam  testamenti 
factionem  concessit :  Trajan  made 
the  privileges  which  had  been  ex- 
tended to  soldiers  settled  rules  of 
law  by  issuing  instructions  to  the 
provincial  governors  (by  mandata) 
to  observe  them  as  such.  A  sol- 
dier's will  to  be  valid  must  be  de- 
clared to  witnesses  understanding 
the  nature  of  the  transaction,  and 
an  heir  must  be  named  for,  at 
least,  part  of  the  estate.  If  an 
heir  were  named  for  only  a  part 
(jtnum  ex  fundo  heredem),  the 
rest  of  the  estate  devolved  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  intestate  succes- 
sion. The  soldier  might  even 
appoint  different  heirs  for  different 
specific  things.  Such  a  will  was 
valid  for  one  year  after  honorable 
dismissal.  All  of  these  privileges 
were  denied  pagani,  i.e.  civilians. 


269 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

indulgentiam  in  milites  contulit,  eamque  et  Traianus 
secutus  est  et  exinde  mandatis  inseri  coepit  caput  tale. 
Caput  ex  mandatis :  '  Cum  in  notitiam  meam  prolatum  sit 
subinde  testamenta  a  commilitonibus  relicta  proferri,  quae 
5  possint  in  controversiam  deduci,  si  ad  diligentiam  legum 
revocentur  et  observantiam,  secutus  animi  mei  integritudi- 
nem  erga  optimos  fidelissimosque  commilitones  simplicitati 
eorum  consulendum  existimavi,  ut  quoquomodo  testati  fuis- 
sent,  rata  esset  eorum  voluntas.  Faciant  igitur  testamenta 

10  quo  modo  volent,  faciant  quo  modo  poterint  sufficiatque 
ad  bonorum  suorum  divisionem  faciendam  nuda  voluntas 
testatoris.' 

uip.  D.  Si  miles  unum  ex  fundo  heredem  scripserit, 

29>I-6  creditum    quantum   ad   residuum    patrimonium 

15  intestatus  decessisset ;  miles  enim  pro  parte  testatus  potest 
decedere,  pro  parte  intestatus. 

Testamentum  iure  factum  mfirmatur  duobus 

Ulp.  23,  i 

modis,  si  ruptum  aut  inritum  factum  sit.     Rum- 
pitur  testamentum  mutatione,  id  est  si  postea  aliud  testa- 

17.     Testamentum     infirmatur  mentum  ruptum  occurred  :  by  the 

duobus  modis  :  a  testament  may  be  subsequent    agnation    of   a  suns 

totally  null  from  the  very  beginning  heres ;  by  making  a  new  will  (tes- 

(t  est  amentum  non  iure  factual)  be-  t  amentum  poster  ius  iure  factum) . 

cause  it  failed  to  meet  the  complete  For  explanation  of  suns  heres  see 

requirement  of  a  valid  instrument,  below,  note  on  Heredes,  p.  273. 

e.g.  by  non-observance  of  the  re-  Revocation  of  a  will  without  the 

quired  form ;  by  failure  to  appoint  necessity  of  making  a  new  one  was 

a  competent   heir ;    by  the   testa-  introduced   by  the   praetor.     For 

tor's  lack  of  testamentary  capacity ;  agnatio  postumi,  see  notes  on  Ag- 

by  passing  over  a  suus  heres.     A  natic,  p.  107,  and  postumi,  p.  146. 

testament  properly  made,  however,  The  testament  was  null  ab  initio  if 

lost  its  legal  significance  (infirma-  the  suus  heres  had   been  simply 

tur)  in  two  general  ways,  as  testa-  passed  over  (sui  heredes  vel  insti- 

mentum  ruptum  and  testamentum  tuendi  sunt  vel  exheredandt).    A 

irrituin  (non    rat  urn) .     A   testa-  testament  was  irritum :  by  the  tes- 

"270 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

mentum  lure  factum  sit.  Item  agnatione,  id  est  si  suus 
heres  agnascatur,  qui  neque  heres  institutus  neque  ut 
oportet  exheredatus  sit.  Agnascitur  suus  heres  aut  agnas- 
cendo  aut  adoptando  aut  in  manum  conveniendo  aut  in 
5  locum  sui  heredis  succedendo,  velut  nepos  mortuo  filio  vel 
emancipate,  aut  manumissione,  id  est  si  films  ex  prima 
secundave  mancipatione  manumissus  reversus  sit  in  patris 
potestatem.  Inritum  fit  testamentum,  si  testator  capite 
deminutus  fuerit,  aut  si  iure  facto  testamento  nemo  extite- 

10  rit  heres.  Si  is  qui  testamentum  fecit  ab  hostibus  captus 
sit,  testamentum  eius  valet,  si  quidem  reversus  fuerit,  iure 
postliminii,  si  vero  ibi  decesserit,  ex  lege  Cornelia,  quae 
perinde  successionem  eius  confirmat,  atque  si  in  civitate 
decessisset.  Si  septem  signis  testium  signatum  sit  testa- 

15  mentum,  licet  iure  civili  ruptum  vel  inritum  factum  sit, 
praetor  scriptis  heredibus  iuxta  tabulas  bonorum  posses- 

tator's  loss  of  testamentary  capacity  some  of  the  formalities  required  by 
after  execution  of  his  will,  e.g.  by  the  civil  law  will  made  per  aes  et 
becoming  alieni  inris]  by  failure  libratn  came  to  be  upheld  by  the 
of  the  heir  to  take  the  inheritance  praetor  if  it  were  a  written  docu- 
(testamentum  destitntuni) .  By  ius  ment  produced  with  the  unbroken 
civile  the  testator  must  retain  testa-  seals  of  seven  witnesses.  The 
mentifactio  from  the  time  of  execu-  praetorian  law  developed  a  new 
tion  of  his  will  up  until  death,  but  form  of  will,  of  which  the  .essential 
the  praetor  required  it  only  at  the  requirements  were  the  tabulae 
time  of  execution  and  at  death.  A  closed  by  the  seals  of  seven  wit- 
will,  therefore,  which  had  become  nesses.  Instead  of  a  defective 
ineffectual  by  the  civil  law,  might  mancipatory  will  becoming  null  ab 
become  effectual  again  by  the  prae-  initio  because  of  non-observance 
torian  law.  of  form,  the  praetor  used  his 

6.  prima  secundave  mancipa-  power  of  granting  the  written  heir 

tione:  see  note  on  qui,  p.  105.  possession,  i.e.  possession  accord- 

12.  ex  lege  Cornelia:  cf.  note  ing  to  the  provisions  of  the  will 

on  Slavery,  p.  84.  (iuxta  vel  secundum  tabulas),  un- 

16.  iuxta  tabulas  bonorum  pos-  less  a  civil  law  heir  ab  intestato 

sessionem  dat :  a  will  which  lacked  claimed  the  inheritance.  The 

271 


SELECTED   TEXTS  FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


10 


sionem  dat,  si  testator  et  civis  Romanus  et  suae  potestatis 
cum  moreretur  fuit ;  quam  bonorum  possessionem  cum  re, 
id  est  cum  effectu  habent,  si  nemo  alius  iure  heres  sit. 

Posteriore  quoque  testamento  quod  iure  fac- 
tum  est  superius  rumpitur. 

Ante  heredis  institution  em  inutiliter  legatur, 
scilicet  quia  testamenta  vim  ex  institutione  here- 
dis accipiunt,  et  ob  id  velut  caput  et  fundamentum  intelle- 
gitur  totius  testamenti  heredis  institutio. 

Ante  omnia  requirendum  est,  an  institutio 
heredis  sollemni  more  facta  sit ;  nam  aliter  facta 
institutione  nihil  proficit  familiam  testatoris  ita  venire  tes- 
tesque  ita  adhibere  et  ita  nuncupare  testamentum.  Sol- 


Gai.  2,  144 


Gai.  2,  229 


Gai.  2,  116 


praetor  could  not  make  one  an 
heir,  but  he  could  put  one  in  pos- 
session of  the  property  (bonorum 
possessor).  For  bonorum  posses- 
sio  see  below,  note  on  bonorum, 
p.  287.  The  procedure  of  making 
a  will  per  aes  et  librain  became  a 
mere  form.  The  praetor  made  use 
of  all  that  was  really  essential, 
namely,  the  written  tablets  at- 
tested by  the  seals  of  seven  wit- 
nesses. For  the  union  of  the  civil 
and  praetorian  forms  in  imperial 
law  see  below,  note  on  bonorum, 
p.  287. 

2.  bonorum  possessionem  cum 
re  :  for  the  meaning  of  aim  re  and 
sine  re  see  below,  text,  p.  291,  Ulp. 
28,  13.  The  persons  whom  the 
praetor  protected  were  not  heirs, 
because  the  testament  was  invali- 
dated, but  they  were  in  the  position 
of  heirs  (bonorum  possessor 'es  here- 


dis loco),  so  long  as  legal  heirs 
{heredes  legitimi)  did  not  come 
forward,  as  effectually  (cum  effect  K) 
as  if  they  were  heirs  under  the 
will  (Jieredes  testamentarii) . 

6.  inutiliter  legatur :  the  prim- 
ary object  of  a  Roman  will  was  the 
appointment  of  an  heir.  This 
was  the  essential  thing,  and  a  will 
could  not  exist  without  such  an 
institutio^  although  it  might  be 
valid  without  other  dispositions. 
A  will,  therefore,  might  consist  of 
three  words  only,  when  there  was 
no  disinherison  and  no  legacy, 
'  Titius  heres  esto."1  So  essential 
was  the  appointment  of  the  heir 
that  all  legacies  written  before  it 
were  void.  In  the  earlier  law  the 
appointment  must  be  in  the  form 
of  a  command  (vcrba  imperativa), 
but  later,  other  forms  of  expression 
were  accepted. 


272 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 

lemnis  autem  institutio  haec  est  '  Titius  heres  esto ' ;  sed  et 
ilia  iam  conprobata  videtur  '  Titium  heredem  esse  iubeo  ' ; 
at  ilia  non  est  conprobata  '  Titium  heredem  esse  volo ' ;  sed 
et  illae  a  plerisque  inprobatae  sunt  'Titium  heredem 
5  instituo,'  item  '  heredem  facio.' 

Heredes  institui  possunt,  qui  testamenti  fac- 

Ulp.  22,  I 

tionem  cum  testatore  habent.  Dediticiorum 
numero  heres  institui  non  potest,  quia  peregrihus  est,  cum 
quo  testamenti  factio  non  est.  Latinus  lunianus  si  quidem 
10  mortis  testatoris  tempore  vel  intra  diem  cretionis  civis  Ro- 
manus  sit,  heres  esse  potest;  quod  si  Latinus  manserit, 
lege  lunia  capere  hereditatem  prohibetur.  Idem  iuris  est 


6.  Heredes  institui  possunt :  it 
was  required  that  the  heir  appointed 
in  a  will  should  have  testamenti 
factio  cum  testatore  when  the  will 
was  executed,  when  he  was  called  to 
the  inheritance  (<&&/&),  and  from 
this  time  until  he  was  vested  with 
it  (adit  id) .  No  account  was  made 
of  the  intervening  time  {media 
tempora  non  nocent).  Capacity 
to  be  instituted  heir  (testamenti 
factio  passiva)  was  less  restricted 
than  capacity  to  execute  a  will, 
just  as  more  requirements  must  be 
satisfied  for  disposing  of  property 
than  for  receiving  it.  Some  per- 
sons, however,  who  were  qualified 
to  be  written  as  heirs  or  legatees 
could  not  take  their  inheritances 
or  legacies,  being  incapable  (inca- 
paces, '  non-takers ')  of  acquisition 
by  special  laws,  e.g.  caelibes,  orbi, 
Latini  luniani.  For  lex  lunia  see 
note  on  Libert  orn  in,  p.  89. 


10.  intra  diem  cretionis  •,  as  will 
be  seen  below,  in  case  of  certain 
kinds  of  heirs,  called  'heirs  by 
necessity '  (Jieredes  necessarii)  no 
acceptance  of  the  inheritance  (adi- 
tid) was  required.  At  the  moment 
of  the  testator's  death,  the  neces- 
sarii  became  heirs  ipso  itere,  the 
choice  of  accepting  or  declining 
the  inheritance  being  denied  them. 
In  the  case  of  other  heirs,  how- 
ever {extranet,  •volunlariiheredes), 
the  will  usually  stated  the  time  to 
be  allowed  for  deliberation  (cretio, 
cernere,  to  decide),  the  ordinary 
period  being  one  hundred  days 
(spatium  deliberandi) .  For  failure 
to  accept  within  the  prescribed 
time,  the  heirs  were  set  aside. 
When  the  will  contained  no  cretio, 
the  heir  used  as  much  time  to  de- 
cide as  he  desired,  unless  limited 
by  the  praetor.  See  also  note  on 
cum  cretiotie,  p.  283. 


ROMAN    LAW 1 8 


273 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 


in  persona  caelibis  propter  legem  luliam.  Incerta  persona 
heres  institui  non  potest,  velut  hoc  modo  :  '  Quisquis  primus 
ad  funus  rneum  venerit,  heres  esto,'  quoniam  certum  con- 
silium  debet  esse  testantis.  Nee  municipia  nee  municipes 
5  heredes  institui  possunt,  quoniam  incertum  corpus  est,  et 


i.  in  persona  caelibis:  by  the 
lex  lulia  et  Papia  Poppaea  (under 
Augustus)  —  two  statutes,  owing 
to  the  similarity  of  their  purpose 
in  regulating  marriage,  commonly 
treated  as  one  —  caelibes  were  ren- 
dered totally  incapable  of  taking 
an  inheritance  or  a  legacy,  unless 
married  within  one  hundred  days 
from  the  testator's  death,  and  orbi 
(childless  married  people)  could 
take  only  the  half.  This  disability 
did  not  apply  to  blood  relations 
of  the  testator  within  the  sixth 
degree.  A  caelebs  was  a  man 
between  twenty-five  and  sixty,  or 
a  woman  between  twenty  and 
fifty,  who  had  never  been  mar- 
ried, and  a  widower  or  a  widow. 
Women  were  allowed  two  years 
from  the  death  of  their  husbands 
and  eighteen  months  from  the 
time  of  their  divorce  in  which  to 
remarry.  All  these  rules  penaliz- 
ing celibacy  and  childlessness  were 
abolished  by  the  sons  of  Constan- 
tine,  and  the  lex  Inlia  et  Papia 
Poppaea  was  entirely  abrogated  by 
Justinian.  —  Incerta  persona  heres 
institui  non  potest :  an  incerta  per- 
sona is  defined  by  Gai.  2.  lift, incerta 
videtur  persona,  quam  per  incer- 
ta»i  opinionem  aniino  suo  testator 
subicit.  Persons  of  whom  the  tes- 


tator has  no  clear  conception  as 
individuals,  because  they  are  not 
yet  born  or  because  they  are  as- 
certainable  only  after  the  execu- 
tion of  his  will,  cannot  be  appointed 
heirs.  Exception  was  made  in  the 
early  law  in  favor  of  the  testator's 
own  posthumous  children  (pos- 
tiind  sui).  Later  the  jurispru- 
dence, under  the  leadership  of  the 
jurist  Aquilius  Gallus,  contempo- 
rary of  Cicero,  extended  this  privi- 
lege to  posthumous  grandchildren, 
if  they  became  sui  heredes  of  their 
grandfather  by  the  latters  surviv- 
ing their  own  father.  Further,  a 
lex  Vellaea,  of  the  early  empire, 
provided  that  sui  heredes  born  in 
the  lifetime  of  the  testator  but 
after  the  execution  of  his  will  were 
to  be  considered  postumi  sui  and 
as  having  testamenti  factio  cum 
test  at  ore.  A  postumus  alienus 
was  still  an  incerta  persona  (e.g.  a 
grandson  conceived  after  a  son's 
emancipation)  by  the  ius  civile, 
but  Justinian  allowed  all  posthu- 
mous children  to  be  made  heir, 
and  removed  most  of  the  restric- 
tions placed  on  incertae  personae, 
natural  and  artificial. 

4.  Nee  municipia  nee  municipes  : 
the  capacity  of  corporations  to  be 
heir  was,  however,  partially  recog- 


274 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

neque  cernere  universi  neque  pro  herede  gerere  possunt, 
ut  heredes  fiant.  Senatus  consulto  tamen  concessum  est, 
ut  a  libertis  suis  heredes  institui  possint.  Sed  fidei  com- 
missa  hereditas  municipibus  restitui  potest,  denique  hoc 
5  senatus  consulto  prospectum  est.  Deos  heredes  instituere 
non  possumus  praeter  eos,  quos  senatus  consulto  constitu- 
tionibusve  principum  instituere  concessum  est.  Servos 
heredes  instituere  possumus,  nostros  cum  libertate,  alienos 
sine  libertate,  communes  cum  libertate  vel  sine  libertate. 

10  Eum  servum,  qui  tantum  in  bonis  noster  est,  nee  cum  lib- 
ertate heredem  instituere  possumus,  quia  Latinitatem  con- 
sequitur,  quod  non  proficit  ad  hereditatem  capiendam. 
Alienos  servos  heredes  instituere  possumus  eos  tantum, 
quorum  cum  dominis  testamenti  factionem  habemus.  Com- 

15  munis  servus  cum  libertate  recte  quidem  heres  instituitur 
quasi  proprius  pro  parte  nostra ;  sine  libertate  autem  quasi 
alienus  propter  socii  partem.  Proprius  servus  cum  liber- 
tate heres  institutus  si  quidem  in  eadem  causa  permanserit, 
ex  testamento  liber  et  heres  fit,  id  est  necessarius. 

nized  earlier  than  Justinian,  in  the  liberty  as  a  matter  of  course  (prae- 

fact  that  municipalities  could  be  sumptio    libertatis,   cf.    notes    on 

made    heirs    of    their    freedmen.  heres,  p.  97,  and  neminem,  p.  98)  ; 

The   Roman   People,  as  a  State,  slaves  of  other  persons  could  ac- 

could  at  all  times  be  heir.     Leo  cept  an  heirship  with  their  masters1 

(469  A.D.)  permitted  the  appoint-  permission  and  thoir  masters  ac- 

ment  of  cities.  cordingly  acquired  the  inheritance 

3.   fidei  commissa  hereditas :  cf.  as  if  they  had  been  appointed  heirs, 

note  on  qui  de,  p.  61.  10.   tantum  in  bonis  est :  i.e.  is 

7.  Servos  heredes  instituere  pos-  not  our  property  by  the  ins  civile, 

sumus  :    the  chief  requirement  of  but  is  only  in  our  possession.    Cf. 

testamenti  factio  passiva  was  com-  notes   on   in    bonis,   p.    185,  and 

mercium.     This,  of  course,  slaves  bonorum  possessionem,  p.  287,  and 

did  not  possess,  but  those  of  the  text. 

testator   could  be  made  heirs,  in  18.    in  eadem  causa :  i.e.  if ^not 

which    case    they   received    their  set  free  in  the  master's  lifetime. 

275 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


In st.  2,  14,  4 


Et  unum  hominem  et  plures  in  infinitum,  quot 
quis  velit,  heredes  facere  licet.  Hereditas  ple- 
rumque  dividitur  in  duodecim  uncias,  quae  assis  appella- 
tione  continentur.  Habent  autem  et  hae  partes  propria 

5  nomina  ab  uncia  usque  ad  assem,  ut  puta  haec  :  sextans, 
quadrans,  triens,  quincunx,  semis,  septunx,  bes,  dodrans  dex- 
tans,  deunx,  as.  Non  autem  utique  duodecim  uncias  esse 
oportet.  Nam  tot  unciae  assem  efficiunt,  quot  testator 
voluerit,  et  si  unum  tantum  quis  ex  semisse  verbi  gratia 

10  heredem  scripserit,  totus  as  in  semisse  erit ;  neque  enim 
idem  ex  parte  testatus  et  ex  parte  intestatus  decedere 
potest,  nisi  sit  miles.  Heres  et  pure  et  sub  condicione 


Otherwise  the  slave  might  accept 
the  inheritance  or  refuse  it.  For 
heres  necessarius  see  note  on  heres, 
p.  97,  and  on  Heredes,  p  282. 

2.  Hereditas  dividitur  in  duode- 
cim uncias :  an  inheritance  might 
be  divided  among  several  joint  heirs 
(coheredes}  equally  (per  capita) 
or  in  fractional  shares.  The  latter 
was  the  usual  way,  the  division 
being  made  according  to  the  Ro- 
man duodecimal  system,  of  which 
the  unit  was  the  as,  normally  com- 
posed of  12  iinciae  (as  in  their 
weights  and  currency).  The  in- 
heritance, as  a  unit,  might  be  con- 
sidered as  composed  of  more  or 
less  than  12  fractions  of  the  as. 
If  the  number  of  shares  be- 
queathed should  amount  to  more 
than  12,  the  unciae  represent  the 
proper  fraction  of  the  unit,  e.g. 
one-fifteenth,  the  inheritance  rep- 
resenting an  as  composed  of  15 
unciae',  if  less  than  12,  the  excess 


is  distributed  among  the  heirs  pro 
rata.  The  names  of  the  fractions 
are  :  uncia  (to),  sextans  (£),  qua- 
drans Q),  triens  (J),  quincnnv 
(i%),  semis  (i),  septunx  (r^),  bes 
(5),  dodrans  (f),  dextans  (j§), 
deunx  (\\}.  A  heres  ex  asse  is, 
therefore,  heir  to  the  whole  estate. 
Cf.  Juv.  1,40,  unciolam  Proculeius 
habet,  sed  Gillo  deuncem. 

10.  totus  as  in  semisse  :  i.e. 
the  whole  as  (the  inheritance 
as  a  unit)  will  be  considered  as 
composed  of  six  parts,  but  if 
there  were  joint  heirs,  the  heir  ex 
semisse  would  be  entitled  to  take 
half. 

12.  nisi  sit  miles :  see  note  on 
Militibus,  p.  269.  —  sub  condi- 
cione institui  potest  :  but  the 
condition  must  be  a  possible  one, 
otherwise  the  heir  takes  the  in- 
heritance at  once,  as  if  the  con- 
dition were  not  there  (pro  non 
scripto) . 


276 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

institui  potest.  Ex  certo  tempore  aut  ad  certum  tempus 
non  potest,  veluti  « post  quinquennium  quam  moriar '  vel 
'  ex  kalendis  illis'  aut  '  usque  ad  kalendas  illas  heres  esto ' ; 
diemque  adiectum  pro  supervacuo  haberi  placet  et  perinde 
5  esse,  ac  si  pure  heres  institutus  esset. 
uip.  D.  Miles  et  ad  tempus  heredem  facere  potest  et 

29,  i,  is-  4  alium  post  tempus  vel  ex  condicione  vel  in  con- 
dicionem.  Item  tarn  sibi  quam  filio  iure  militari  testamen- 
tum  facere  potest,  et  soli  filio,  tametsi  sibi  non  fecerit; 

10  quod  testamentum  valebit,  si  forte  pater  vel  in  militia  vel 
intra  annum  militiae  decessit. 

inst  2  15  Potest  autem  quis  in  testamento  suo  plures 

gradus  heredum  facere,  ut  puta  '  si  ille  heres  non 

erit,  ille  heres  esto ' ;  et  deinceps,  in  quantum  velit,  testator 

15  substituere  potest  et  novissimo  loco  in  subsidium  vel  servum 
necessarium  heredem  instituere.  Et  plures  in  unius  locum 
possunt  substitui,  vel  unus  in  plurium,  vel  singuli  singulis, 
vel  invicem  ipsi,  qui  heredes  instituti  sunt. 

Liberis  nostris  impuberibus,  quos  in  potestate 

20  habemus,  non  solum  ita  ut  supra  diximus  sub- 

12.  plures  gradus  heredum :  as  a  tuni).  The  degree  to  which  sub- 
provision  against  the  possibility  of  stitutes  could  be  appointed  was 
dying  intestate  through  the  failure  unlimited.  The  possibility  of  the 
of  an  heir,  the  Roman  law  allowed  will  failing  because  none  of  the 
the  conditional  appointment  of  voluntary  heirs  (vel  instituti  vel 
persons  to  become  heirs  in  case  substitutt)  chose  to  accept  was 
the  appointed  heir  should  fail  to  often  met  (especially  by  insolvent 
take  the  inheritance,  e.g.  because  testators)  by  appointing  slaves  at 
of  death  in  the  testator's  lifetime,  the  end  of  the  series  of  substitutes 
or  of  refusal,  or  of  loss  of  capacity  (heres  necessarius,  cf.  note  on  heres, 
to  be  heir.  Except  for  the  provi-  p.  97  and  below,  note  on  Heredes,  p. 
sional  appointment  of  substitutes,  282).  This  is  the  ordinary  kind  of 
the  will  would  become  ineffectual  substitution  (siibstitutio  vulgaris). 
(testamentum  irritum,  destitu-  19.  Liberis  nostris  impuberibus : 

277 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 


stituere  possumus,  id  est  ut  si  heredes  non  extiterint,  alius 
nobis  heres  sit ;  sed  eo  amplius  ut,  etiamsi  heredes  nobis 
extiterint  et  adhuc  inpuberes  mortui  fuerint,  sit  iis  aliquis 
heres ;  velut  hoc  modo  '  Titius  films  meus  mihi  heres  esto. 

5  Si  filius  meus  mihi  heres  non  erit  sive  heres  erit  et  prius 
moriatur  quam  in  suam  tutelam  venerit,  tune  Seius  heres 
esto.'  Quo  casu  siquidem  non  extiterit  heres  filius,  sub- 
stitutus  patri  fit  heres ;  si  vero  heres  extiterit  filius  et  ante 
pubertatem  decesserit,  ipsi  filio  fit  heres  substitutus.  Quam 

10  ob  rem  duo  quodammodo  sunt  testamenta,  aliud  patris, 
aliud  filii,  tamquam  si  ipse  filius  sibi  heredem  instituisset ; 
aut  certe  unum  est  testamentum  duarum  hereditatum. 

Qui  filium  in  potestate  habet.  curare  debet, 

Inst.  2,i3,pr. 

ut  eum  heredem  mstituat  vel  exheredem  nomi- 
15  natim  faciat ;  alioquin  si  eum  silentio  praeterierit,  inutiliter 


since  a  Roman  citizen  had  no 
active  testamentary  capacity  until 
the  age  of  puberty,  it  might  hap- 
pen that  children  surviving  their 
father  should  themselves  die  while 
in  pupilage,  i.e.  before  they  had 
capacity  to  make  a  will  and  so  die 
intestate.  To  meet  this  difficulty, 
the  law  allowed  a  father  in  making 
his  will  to  appoint  provisional 
heirs  for  his  surviving  children, 
should  they  die  intra  pubertatem. 
This  is  the  so-called  pupillary  sub- 
stitution (substitutio  pupillaris*). 
These  substitutions  were  ineffec- 
tual as  soon  as  the  pupilli  became 
puberes. 

i.  si  heredes  non  extiterint :  i.e. 
substitutions  could  be  made  for 
children  in  the  testator's  power  in 
the  event  of  their  not  becoming; 


heirs  for  any  reason  such  as  non- 
acceptance  or  predecease,  but  the 
substitutes  would  be  the  heir  of  the 
testator,  not  of  the  children.  A 
will  making  a  pupillary  substitu- 
tion was  peculiar  in  that  it  dealt 
with  two  inheritances,  that  of  the 
testator  and  that  of  his  son  (duo 
quodammodo  testamenta) . 

14.  ut  eum  heredem  instituat : 
a  father  must  notice  stii  heredes  in 
his  will  either  by  their  appoint- 
ment as  heirs  or  by  their  disin- 
herison.  Passing  over  them  in 
silence  was  not  only  insufficient 
for  their  disinherison,  but  in  the 
case  of  sons  was  fatal  to  the  will. 
In  other  words,  certain  heirs  had 
such  strong  natural  claims  upon 
the  inheritance  because  of  their 
close  relationship  to  the  testator, 


278 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


testabitur,  adeo  quidem  ut,  etsi  vivo  patre  filius  mortuus  sit, 
nemo  ex  eo  testamento  heres  existere  possit,  quia  scilicet 
ab  initio  non  constiterit  testamentum.  Sed  non  ita  de  fili- 
abus  vel  aliis  per  virilem  sexum  descendentibus  liberis 
5  utriusque  sexus  fuerat  antiquitati  observatum ;  sed  si  non 
fuerant  heredes  script!  scriptaeve  vel  exhereditati  exheredi- 
tataeve,  testamentum  quidem  non  infirmabatur,  ius  autem 
adcrescendi  eis  ad  certam  portionem  praestabatur.  Sed 


that  the  latter's  intention  to  defeat 
these  claims  must  be  formally  ex- 
pressed. The  origin  and  early 
history  of  this  principle  (exhereda- 
tio)  are  in  considerable  doubt,  and 
various  explanations  have  been 
given.  In  primitive  law  there  was 
no  will.  The  sui,  as  co-owners  of 
the  family  property,  at  the  death  of 
their  paterfamilias,  came  into  full 
control  ipso  iure.  They  were  in 
the  household  ;  they  could  not  be 
set  aside.  Later  on,  even  in  the 
presence  of  a  will,  they  were  enti- 
tled to  the  inheritance,  and  the  will 
was  probably  invalid.  In  the 
Twelve  Tables,  the  testator  had 
unrestricted  testamentary  power 
(itti  legassit  super  pecunia  tute- 
lave  suae  ret,  ita  ius  estd)  and 
contrary  to  the  former  customary 
law,  this  was  interpreted  to  mean 
that  even  sui  heredes  might  be 
disinherited  in  favor  of  a  stranger 
(extraneus)  ;  and  so  the  principle 
gained  recognition  before  the  time 
of  Cicero  that  sui  heredes  (pos- 
tumi  as  well  as  natt)  must  be  ap- 
pointed or  disinherited  in  express 
terms  (heredes  sui  vel  institu- 


endi  sunt  vel  exheredandt).  — 
nominatim :  not  necessarily  by 
name  (for  this  would  be  impos- 
sible in  case  of  postumi),  but  by 
express  statement,  while  others 
than  filii  could  be  disinherited  in 
a  general  statement,  which  was 
often  added  after  the  appointment 
of  heir  ('  ceteri  omnes  exheredes 
santo"1).  Justinian  required  the 
same  formal  disinherison  of  all 
sui. 

7.  ius  adcrescendi :  passing  over 
a  filius  rendered  the  will  void, 
whereas  passing  over  other  sui 
(ceteri)  did  not  invalidate  the  will, 
but  those  passed  over  (praeteriti) 
were  entitled  to  certain  portions. 
If  the  appointee  were  an  outsider 
(extraneus),  the  praeteriti  took 
one  half  of  the  inheritance ;  if  sui, 
the  sui  praeteriti  took  equal  shares 
(portio  virilis)  with  the  appointed 
heirs,  i.e.  per  capita  (reliquae  vero 
personae  liberorum,  velut  filia 
nepos  neptis,  si  praeteritae  sint, 
'valet  testamentum,  sed  scriptis 
heredibus  adcrescunt,  suis  quidem 
heredibus  in  partem  virilem,  extra- 
nets  autem  in  partem  dimidiani). 


279 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

nec  nominatim  eas  personas  exheredare  parentibus  necesse 
erat,  sed  licebat  et  inter  ceteros  hoc  facere.  Nominatim 
autem  exheredari  quis  videtur,  sive  ita  exheredetur  '  Titius 
films  meus  exheres  esto,'  sive  ita  '  filius  meus  exheres  esto ' 
5  non  adiecto  proprio  nomine,  scilicet  si  alius  filius  non  extet. 
Postumi  quoque  liberi  vel  heredes  institui  debent  vel  ex- 
heredari. Et  in  eo  par  omnium  condicio  est,  quod  et  in 
filio  postumo  et  in  quolibet  ex  ceteris  liberis  sive  feminini 
sexus  sive  masculini  praeterito  valet  quidem  testamentum, 

10  sed  postea  adgnatione  postumi  sive  postumae  rumpitur  et 
ea  ratione  totum  infirmatur. 

Emancipates  liberos  iure  civili  neque  heredes  instituere 
neque  exheredare  necesse  est,  quia  non  sunt  sui  heredes. 
Sed  praetor  omnes  tarn  feminini  quam  masculini  sexus,  si 

15  heredes  non  instituantur,  exheredari  iubet,  virilis  sexus 
nominatim,  feminini  vero  et  inter  ceteros.  Quodsi  neque 
heredes  instituti  fuerint  neque  ita  ut  diximus  exheredati, 
promittit  praetor  eis  contra  tabulas  testamenti  bonorum 
possessionem. 

20  Quia  plerunique  parentes  sine  causa  liberos 

Inst.  2,  18 

suos  vel  exheredant  vel  omittunt,  inductum  est, 
ut  de  inofficioso  testamento  agere  possint  liberi,  qui  que- 

This  distinction  was  set  aside  by  ing  them  or  by  disinheriting  them, 

Justinian.  but  it  was  further  required  that 

10.  adgnatione  postumi:  see  they  should  be  disinherited  for 

note  on  postumi,  p.  146.  cause,  and  passing  over  them  in 

12.  Emancipates  liberos:  the  silence  or  disinheriting  them  in 

praetor,  recognizing  the  tie  of  blood,  express  terms,  leaving  the  inherit- 

extended  the  principle  of  disinher-  ance  to  strangers,  opened  the  will 

ison  to  emancipated  children.  to  attack  on  the  ground  that  it 

22.  de  inofficioso  testamento  :  as  was  '  undutiful '  (m-ojjiciosum)  or 

was  seen  above,  it  was  not  only  contrary  to  the  officium  pietatis, 

the  duty  of  the  testator  to  notice  i.e.  the  natural  affection  of  a  parent 

certain  natural  heirs,  by  appoint-  toward  his  children.  Toward  the 

280 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

runtur,  aut  inique  se  exheredatos  aut  inique  praeteritos, 
hoc  colore,  quasi  non  sanae  mentis  fuerunt,  cum  testa- 
mentum  ordinarent.  Sed  hoc  dicitur,  non  quasi  vere 
furiosus  sit,  sed  recte  quidem  fecit  testamentum,  non 
5  autem  ex  officio  pietatis ;  nam  si  vere  furiosus  est,  nullum 
est  testamentum. 

Marc.  D.  Inofficiosum    testamentum    dicere    hoc    est : 

allegare,   quare   exheredari   vel    praeteriri   non 

debuerit;    quod    plerumque   accidit,    cum    falso    parentes 

10  instimulati  liberos  suos  vel  exheredant  vel  praetereunt. 
Huius  autem  verbi  '  de  officioso '  vis  ilia  ut  dixi  est  docere 
immerentem  se  et  ideo  indigne  praeteritum  vel  etiam  ex- 
heredatione  summotum,  resque  illo  colore  defenditur  apud 
iudicem,  ut  videatur  ille  quasi  non  sanae  mentis  fuisse,  cum 

15  testamentum  inique  ordinaret. 

Non    tantum    autem    liberis    permissum    est 

Inst.  2,  18,  i 

parentum   testamentum    inofficiosum    accusare, 

end  of  the  republic,  the  Centum-  opened    to    the    legal    heirs    (ab 

viral   court,  which   presided   over  intestato). 

all  controversies  regarding  inher-  9.   falso    parentes   instimulati : 

itance,  admitted    a    formal    com-  originally  the  question  of  deciding 

plaint   by  which    the   validity   of  what  grounds   were  sufficient  to 

such  a  will  was  tested  (querela  in-  justify  the  disinheritance  of  natural 

ojficiosi  testamenti).     Since,  how-  heirs  was  left  entirely  to  the  dis- 

ever,  such  a  will  was  not  void  but  cretion  of  the  court.     There  was 

only  voidable,  if  it  appeared  that  no  statute  providing  for  relief  in 

natural  heirs  had  been  disinherited  case   of  an  undutiful   will.     The 

without  sufficient  cause,  the  prac-  institution  grew  out  of  the  practice 

tice  of  the  court  allowed  a  fictitious  of  the  Centumviral  court,  which 

allegation  that  an  undutiful  will,  was  based  on  moral  grounds  rather 

being  contrary  to  natural  feeling,  than    on    law.      Justinian    deter- 

was  the  work  of  a  testator  unsound  mined  the  question  with  more  cer- 

in    mind    (hoc  colore,  quasi  non  tainty  by  naming  fourteen  grounds 

sanae  mentis}  and  as  such  should  for  disinheriting  a  child,  and  he 

be  set  aside.     The  estate  was  then  required  that  the  testator  state  in 

281 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 


verum  etiam  parentibus  liberorum.  Soror  autem  et  frater 
turpibus  personis  scriptis  heredibus  ex  sacris  constitu- 
tionibus  praelati  sunt ;  non  ergo  contra  omnes  heredes 
agere  possunt.  Vltra  fratres  et  sorores  cognati  nullo 
5  modo  aut  agere  possunt  aut  agentes  vincere.  Igitur  quar- 
tam  quis  debet  habere,  lit  de  inofficioso  testamento  agere 
non  possit. 

Heredes  autem  aut  necessarii  dicuntur  aut  sui 

Gai.  2,  152  ..  . 

et  necessarii  aut  extranei.     Necessarms  heres  est 
10  servus  cum  libertate  heres  mstitutus,  ideo  sic  appellatus, 


his  will  the  reason  in  each  case  for 
the  disinherison. 

i.  parentibus  liberorum :  the  law 
of  Justinian  allowed  a  parent  to 
attack  the  will  of  a  child  as  '  un- 
dutiful'  if  the  latter  had  no  chil- 
dren, and  required  that  the  child 
should  state  the  reason  for  his 
conduct.  Of  collaterals,  brothers 
and  sisters  only  could  enter  the 
plea  (guerela),  if  there  were  no 
children  or  parents,  and  if  infa- 
mous persons  {persona  turpis) 
were  appointed  over  them.  This 
remedy  was  not  open  to  those  to 
whom  the  law  offered  any  other 
relief  in  the  case,  and  it  was  denied 
those  who  had  acknowledged  the 
validity  of  the  will  by  accepting 
anything  under  it. 

5.  Igitur  quartam  (sc.  portion- 
ent)  :  the  amount  that  one  should 
receive  who  had  been  disinherited 
by  an  undutiful  will  was  originally 
left  to  the  discretion  of  the  judge. 
Later  on,  after  the  analogy  of  the 
lex  Falcidia  (a  plebiscitum,  40  B.C  , 


providing  that  every  testamentary 
heir  should  be  left  one  fourth  of 
the  inheritance,  free  from  legacies), 
it  became  an  established  rule  that 
every  child  was  entitled  to  at  least 
one  fourth  of  his  share  by  intestacy 
(quarta  legit  i/na,  portio  legitimd) . 
8.  Heredes  necessarii :  by  the 
civil  law,  there  were,  in  the  broadest 
sense,  two  kinds  of  heirs,  those 
that  inherit  inviti  (heredes  douies- 
tici,  i.e.  members  of  the  deceased's 
household),  and  voluntarii  (liere- 
des  extranei,  i.e.  outsiders).  The 
former  became  heirs  at  once,  by 
operation  of  law,  after  the  death 
of  their  predecessor.  They  were 
heirs  by  necessity.  The  latter  be- 
came heirs  only  by  an  act  of  entry 
(aditio  hereditatis)  showing  their 
intention  to  accept  the  office. 
They  were,  therefore,  heirs  by 
choice  or  voluntary  heirs.  In  the 
ancient  ius  civile,  there  was  no  dif- 
ference in  the  matter  of  neces- 
sary heirship  between  necessarii 
(slaves)  and  sui  et  necessarii  (per- 


282 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

quia  sive  velit  sive  nolit,  omni  modo  post  mortem  testa- 
toris  protinus  liber  et  heres  est.  Vnde  qui  facilitates  suas 
suspectas  habet,  solet  servum  suum  primo  aut  secundo  vel 
etiam  ulteriore  gradu  liberum  et  heredem  instituere,  ut  si 
5  creditoribus  satis  non  fiat,  potius  huius  heredis  quam  ipsius 
testatoris  bona  veneant,  id  est  ut  ignominia,  quae  accidit 
ex  venditione  bonorum,  hunc  potius  heredem  quam  ipsum 
testatorem  contingat. 

Inter  necessaries  heredes,  id  est  servos  cum 

Ulp.  22,  24 

10  libertate  heredes  scnptos,  et  suos  et  necessarios, 

id  est  liberos  qui  in  potestate  sunt,  iure  civili  nihil  interest ; 
nam  utrique  etiam  inviti  heredes  sunt.  Sed  iure  praetorio 
suis  et  necessariis  heredibus  abstinere  se  a  parentis  here- 
ditate  permittitur,  necessariis  autem  tantum  heredibus  ab- 

15  stinendi  potestas  non  datur.  Extraneus  heres,  si  quidem 
cum  cretione  sit  heres  institutus,  cernendo  fit  heres ;  si 
vero  sine  cretione,  pro  herede  gerendo.  Pro  herede  gerit 

sons  under  the  potestas,  manus,  or  on    heres    solus,   p.   97,   and    fie, 

mancipiitm   of  deceased).     Both  p.  98). 

alike  were  bound  to  take  the  in-  3.  primo  aut  secundo  vel  ulteri- 

heritance  with  its  debts,  as  well  as  ore   gradu  :    see   note   on   plures 

its  benefits.     But  the  equity  of  the  gradus,  p.  277. 

praetor  relieved  the  siti  from  the  16.   cum  cretione:  the  voluntary 

burden  of  an  insolvent  inheritance  heir  to  be  properly  vested  with  the 

(Iiereditas  damnosa)  by  extending  inheritance  must  have  made  either 

to  them  the  privilege  of  '  holding  a  formal  declaration  of  his  inten- 

off'  from  it  (beneficium  abstinendi},  tion  to  accept  or  else  he  must  have 

so  that  if  they  elected  to  refuse,  given  some  informal  expression  of 

they  were  relieved  of  any  financial  his   intention.      The   former  was 

risks  connected  with  the  inherit-  called  cretio,  the  latter,  pro  herede 

ance.     The  slave  (necessarius)  re-  gestio.     The  sui  et  necessarii  here- 

ceived   his   compensation  for  the  des  lost  the  praetorian  benefit  of 

forced  acceptance  of  an  insolvent  abstention  by  any  informal  act  of 

estate  in   the   grant    of    freedom  interference  with  the  inheritance 

(inanumissio  testamento,  see  notes  (imntixtid) . 

283 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE  ROMAN  LAW 


qui  rebus  hereditariis  tamquam  dominus  utitur,  velut  qui 
auctionem  rerum  hereditariarum  facit  aut  servis  heredita- 
riis cibaria  dat.  Cretio  est  certorum  dierum  spatium,  quod 
datur  institute  heredi  ad  deliberandum,  utrum  expediat  ei 
5  adire  hereditatem  nee  ne,  velut  '  Titius  heres  esto  cerni- 
toque  in  diebus  centum  proximis,  quibus  scieris  poterisque; 
nisi  ita  creveris,  exheres  esto.'  Cernere  est  verba  cretionis 
dicere  ad  hunc  modum :  '  quod  me  Maevius  heredem  insti- 
tuit,  earn  hereditatem  adeo  cernoque.' 

Intestatus  decedit,  qui  aut  omnino  testamen- 
tum  non  fecit  aut  non  iure  fecit  aut  id  quod 
fecerat  ruptum  irritumve  factum  est  aut  nemo  ex  eo  heres 
extitit. 


Inst.  3,  i 


3.  certorum  dierum  spatium :  the 
testator  usually  fixed  in  his  will 
the  period  allowed  for  the  heir  to 
deliberate  on  the  acceptance  of  the 
inheritance.  The  usual  time  was 
one  hundred  days.  In  the  absence 
of  a  predetermined  period,  the 
praetor  was  often  requested  by  the 
creditors  of  the  estate  to  fix  a 
period  within  which  the  heirs  must 
accept  or  refuse,  according  to  the 
demands  of  their  interests  (benefi- 
cinm  deliberandi').  Justinian  re- 
quired that  it  should  not  exceed 
one  year. 

10.  Intestatus:  if  a  Roman  citizen 
died  without  making  a  will,  or  his 
will  was  void  or  became  ineffectual 
for  any  of  the  reasons  stated  above 
(see  note  on  Testamentum,  p.  270), 
the  succession  to  his  inheritance 
was  regulated  by  the  operation  of 
law.  The  heirs  were,  therefore, 


called  heredes  legitimi  and  the  in- 
heritance, her  edit  as  legit  ima  (or  ai 
intestato)  in  distinction  from  here- 
des testament ar ii  (or  ex  testa- 
mentoi).  In  the  absence  of  a  valid 
will,  the  members  of  an  intestate's 
family  were  called  to  the  heirship. 
Who  the  heirs  were  would  depend 
upon  the  conception  of  the  Roman 
family  (cf.  note  on  Agnatic,  p. 
107).  This  conception  changed 
very  much  in  the  time  from  the 
Twelve  Tables  to  Justinian's  death. 
From  the  agnatic  principle  of  the 
•ins  civile,  which  depends  entirely 
upon  potestas,  to  the  recognition 
of  the  cognates  (relationship  by 
blood)  by  the  praetor  and  imperial 
legislation,  the  rules  of  intestate 
succession  became  materially  al- 
tered. Three  periods  must  be 
borne  in  mind  in  the  law  of  intes- 
tacv :  that  of  the  Twelve  Tables 


284 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Ulp.  26,  i 


Intestatorum  ingenuorum  hereditates  pertinent 
primum  ad  suos  heredes,  id  est  liberos  qui  in  po- 
testate  sunt  ceterosque  qui  liberorum  loco  sunt ;  si  sui  here- 
des non  sunt,  ad  consanguineos,  id  est  fratres  et  sorores  ex 
5  eodem  patre ;  si  nee  hi  sunt,  ad  reliquos  agnatos  proximos, 


(ius  civile),  the  system  of  the  prae- 
tor (honor um  possessio),  and  the 
system  of  Justinian  (a  union  of  the 
ins  civile  and  bonorum  possessio). 

1 .  Intestatorum  ingenuorum  he- 
reditates :    the   law   distinguishes 
between    the    devolution    of   the 
estates  of  freedmen  and  freemen. 
The  former,  though  possessing  the 
private  rights  of  freemen,  never- 
theless   remained    under    certain 
obligations  to  their  patrons,  and 
this  appeared  in  the  course  which 
the  property  of  intestate  freedmen 
took  (noticed  below,  note  on  Lib- 
er torn  in,  p.  287). 

2.  primum  ad  suos  heredes  :  the 
law  of  intestate  succession  is  based 
on  the  principle  of  collective,  fam- 
ily  ownership    of    their  common 
property.     The  ownership  of  this 
family  property  was  not  materially 
affected  when  it  passed  from  the 
control  of  the  father  to  his  copro- 
prietors,  his    children,   who   were 
members  of  his   own  household. 
The     Twelve     Tables    indicated 
three  groups  of  persons  to  be  called 
successively  to  the  estate  of  an  in- 
testate,  i.e.   sui   heredes,   agnati, 
and  gentiles.     The  sui  were  those 
in  the  potestas  of  the  deceased, 
who  became  sui  iuris  by  his  death 
(see  below).     This  includes  more 


than  his  own  children  ;  it  includes 
his  family  on  the  agnatic  basis  of 
composition,  i.e.  his  children,  his 
wife  in  manu,  his  grandchildren 
begotten  by  a  son  predeceased  or 
emancipated  (but  born  before 
the  emancipation  occurred)  and 
adopted  children.  The  sui  con- 
tinue the  family  ownership.  The 
inheritance  is  vested  in  them  di- 
rectly, even  without  their  knowl- 
edge or  consent.  Those  of  the 
same  degree  took  equal  shares, 
being  counted  by  heads  (per 
capita)  •  those  of  the  second  de- 
gree, in  conjunction  with  heirs  of 
the  first  degree  (i.e.  grandchildren 
and  children  respectively),  took 
the  share  of  their  immediate  as- 
cendant, if  dead,  and  this  share 
was  divided  among  them  counted 
by  stocks  (  per  stirpes) .  Cf.  note 
on  in  stirpes,  p.  287. 

4.  ad  consanguineos :  consan- 
guinei  sunt  eodem  patre  nati,  licet 
diversis  ttiatribus,  qui  in  potestate 
fiterunt  mortis  tempore :  adop- 
tions quoque  f rater,  Paul.  4,  8,  15. 
In  default  of  sui  heredes,  the 
Twelve  Tables  called  in  the  second 
place  the  collateral  agnates  of  the 
degree  nearest  to  the  deceased 
(agnati  proximi).  Several  ag- 
nates of  the  same  degree  took 


285 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


id  est  cognates  virilis  sexus  per  mares  descendentes  eiusdem 
familiae.  Id  enim  cautum  est  lege  duodecim  tabularum 
hac :  '  si  intestate  moritur,  cui  suus  heres  nee  escit,  agna- 
tus  proximus  familiam  habeto.'  Si  agnatus  defuncti  non 
5  sit,  eadem  lex  duodecim  tabularum  gentiles  ad  hereditatem 
vocat. 

Non  tamen  omnibus  simul  agnatis  dat  lex  duo- 
decim tabularum  hereditatem,  sed  his  qui  turn, 
cum  certum  est  aliquem    intestatum    decessisse,   proximo 
10  gradu  sunt.     Nee  in  eo  iure  successio  est.     Ideoque  si  ag- 
natus proximus  hereditatem  omiserit  vel  antequam  adierit 
decesserit,  sequentibus  nihil  iuris  ex  lege  conpetit. 


Gai.  3,  ii 


equal  portions  (per  capita). 
Those  of  the  nearest  degree 
(brothers  and  sisters)  took  alike 
without  distinction  of  sex,  while 
remoter  degrees  were  represented 
pnly  by  males.  Agnates  were  vol- 
untary heirs.  They  might,  there- 
fore, refuse  the  inheritance,  but  in 
this  case  there  was  no  succession 
open  to  the  next  degree,  or  to  re- 
moter degrees  (iiec  in  eo  iure  suc- 
cessio est).  The  law  called  none 
but  the  nearest  agnate  living  at 
the  death  of  the  intestate.  If  he 
did  not  become  heir,  the  offer  of 
the  inheritance  passed  at  once  to 
the  gentiles.  Just  how  the  gens 
succeeded,  whether  as  individual 
families,  as  a  corporation,  or  other- 
wise, is  not  known.  The  gentile 
succession  was  obsolete  in  the 
time  of  Gaius. 

i.  cognates  virilis  sexus:  by 
interpretation  of  the  lex  Voconia 
(169  B.C.),  which  imposed  restric- 


tions on  women  in  the  law  of  suc- 
cession (as  heirs  and  legatees), 
the  jurists  introduced  the  principb 
that  beyond  brothers  and  sisters 
agnates  of  the  male  sex  alone 
could,  be  heirs,  i.e.  that  women 
should  be  restricted  to  the  consan- 
gtiineae.  The  lex  Voconia  having 
disqualified  women  in  testamentary 
succession,  the  lawyers  held  by 
analogy  that  they  should  be  under 
a  similar  disability  in  intestate 
succession  (feminae  ad  hereditates 
legitiinas  ultra  consanguineas  suc- 
cessiones  non  admittuntur :  idque 
iure  civili  Voconiana  ratione  iride- 
tur  effect  tun.  Ceterum  lex  duode- 
cim tabularum  nulla  discretione 
sexus  cognatos  adinittit,  Paul.  4, 

8,20). 

12.  sequentibus  :  e.g.  to  the  son 
of  the  proximus  agnatus,  as  a 
'  nearer  (sometimes  technically 
called  proximior}  proximus. "*  Cf. 
note  on  proximior,  p.  170. 


286 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Si  defuncti  sit  filius,  et  ex  altero  filio  mortuo 
uip.  26,  2  . 

lam  nepos  unus  vel  etiam  plures,  ad  omnes  here- 

ditas  pertinet,  non  ut  in  capita  dividatur,  sed  in  stirpes,  id 
est  ut  filius  solus  mediam  partem  habeat  et  nepotes  quot- 
5  quot  sunt  alteram  dimidiam ;  aequum  est  enim  nepotes  in 
patris  sui  locum  succedere  et  earn  partem  habere,  quam 
pater  eorum,  si  viveret,  habiturus  esset. 

Libertorum  intestatorum  hereditas  primum  ad 
uip.  27,  i  . 

suos  heredes  pertinet,  demde  ad  eos,  quorum 

10  liberti  sunt,  velut  patronum  patronam  liberosve  patroni. 
Ad  liberos  matris  intestatae  hereditas  ex  lege 

Uip.  26,  7 

duodecim  tabularum  non  pertinebat,  quia  femi- 
nae  suos  heredes  non  habent;  sed  postea  imperatorum 
Antonini  et  Commodi  oratione  in  senatu  recitata  id  actum 

15  est,  ut  sine  in  manum  conventione  matrum  legitimae  here- 
ditates  ad  filios  pertineant,  exclusis  consanguineis  et  reli- 
quis  agnatis.  Intestati  filii  hereditas  ad  matrem  ex  lege 
duodecim  tabularum  non  pertinet;  sed  si  ius  liberorum 
habeat,  ingenua  trium,  libertina  quattuor,  legitima  heres 

20  fit  ex  senatus  consulto  Tertulliano,  si  tamen  ei  filio  neque 
suus  heres  sit  quive  inter  suos  heredes  ad  bonorum  posses- 
sionem  a  praetore  vocatur,  neque  pater,  ad  quern  lege  here- 

3.    in  stirpes :  i.e.  they  became  scendants,    and    finally,    to    their 

heirs  'by  representation,1  all   the  gens.     But  the  estate  of  a  Latinus 

grandchildren  together  represent-  lunianus  passed  at   once   to  his 

ing  their  own  father  took  his  share,  patron  and  the  latter's  heirs  in  the 

in  this  case,  the  half.  nature  of  a  peculium  (see  note  on 

8.   Libertorum  intestatorum  he-  Libertorum,  p.  89). 
reditas  :  the  inheritance  of  a  freed-  21.  bonorum  possessionem:  along 

man  was   by  the  Twelve   Tables  with  the  civil  inheritance  of  the 

offered  to  his  sui  heredes ;  in  de-  ins  civile,  the  praetor  developed, 

fault  of  these,  to  his  patron,  and  during   the   republic,   an   entirely 

then   to   the   latter's   agnatic   de-  new  system  of  succession.    Certain 

287 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 


ditas  bonorumve  possessio  cum  re  pertinet,  neque  frater 
consanguineus  ;  quod  si  soror  consanguinea  sit,  ad  utrasque 
pertinere  iubetur  hereditas. 

uip.  D.  Bonorum  igitur  possessionem  ita  recte  defini- 

5  37,  i,  3. 2        emus  ius  persequendi  retinendique   patrimonii 
sive  rei,  quae  cuiusque  cum  moritur  fuit. 

Ius  bonorum  possessionis  introductum  est  a 
praetore  emendandi  veteris  iuris  gratia.      Nee 
solum   in   intestatorum   hereditatibus  vetus   ius  eo  modo 


Inst.  3, 9 


persons,  according  to  rules  pub- 
lished in  the  edict,  were  given  an 
interest  in  the  estate  of  a  deceased 
person.  These  persons  were  pro- 
tected in  their  enjoyment  of  the 
estate  by  praetorian  interference, 
on  the  ground  that  they  were  the 
best  entitled  to  the  possession  of 
the  estate.  By  the  civil  law,  only 
those  who  were  strictly  heredes  (as 
defined  by  law)  were  called  to  an 
inheritance.  By  the  praetorian 
law,  those  persons  were  put  in 
possession  whom  the  praetor  by  a 
natural  sense  of  equity  (ex  aequo 
et  bono)  considered  as  best  enti- 
tled to  the  succession.  The  prae- 
torian successor  was  called  bonorum 
possessor,  the  system,  bonorum 
possessio,  just  as  the  civil  successor 
was  called  heres,  the  inheritance, 
hereditas.  These  two  systems 
existed  for  a  long  time  side  by 
side,  the  hereditas  devolving  by 
an  act  of  law  (iure  civili),  the 
bonorum  possessio  being  obtained 
only  by  application  to  a  magistrate 
(iure  honor  arid),  but  the  praeto- 


rian system  was  modified  by  de- 
crees of  the  senate  and  imperial 
enactments  until  the  two  were 
finally  merged  into  one  system  by 
Justinian. 

5.  ius  persequendi:  'the  right 
to  pursue  and  to  keep  the  entire 
property  or  any  single  thing  which 
belonged  to  a  person  at  the  time 
of  death.'  Bona  in  this  connec- 
tion means  more  than  corporeal 
property,  goods  having  a  physical 
existence ;  here  it  is  synonymous 
with  hereditas,  including  the  en- 
tire estate,  with  its  rights  and  lia- 
bilities, even  though  lacking  corpo- 
real property  (sive  damnnm  habent 
sive  lucrum,  sive  in  corporibus 
sunt  sive  in  actionibus,  in  hoc  loco 
proprie  bona  appellabuntur.  De- 
nique  etsi  nihil  corporate  est  in 
hereditate,  attamen  recte  eius  bono- 
rum possessionem  adg)iitam  Labeo 
ait,V.  37,  1,3). 

7.  introductum  est  a  praetore : 
the  origin  of  the  praetor's  interfer- 
ence in  inheritance  is  still  much 
in  dispute.  It  is  probable  that  the 


288 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

praetor  emandavit,  sicut  supra  dictum  est,  sed  in  eorum 
quoque,  qui  testamento  facto  decesserint.  Nam  si  alienus 
postumus  heres  fuerit  institutus,  quamvis  hereditatem  iure 
civili  adire  non  poterat,  cum  institutio  non  valebat,  hono- 
5  rario  tamen  iure  bonorum  possessor  efficiebatur,  videlicet 
cum  a  praetore  adiuvabatur ;  sed  et  hie  e  nostra  constitu- 
tione  hodie  recte  heres  instituitur,  quasi  et  iure  civili  non 
incognitus.  Aliquando  tamen  neque  emendandi  neque  im- 
pugnandiveterisiuris,  sed  magisconfirmandi  gratia  pollicetur 

10  bonorum  possessionem.  Adhuc  autem  et  alios  complures 
gradus  praetor  fecit  in  bonorum  possessionibus  dandis,  dum  id 
agebat,  ne  quis  sine  successore  moriatur ;  nam  angustissimis 
finibus  constitutum  per  legem  duodecim  tabularum  ius  per- 
cipiendarum  hereditatum  praetor  ex  bono  et  aequo  dilatavit. 

J5  uip.  D.  Successorium  edictum  idcirco  propositum  est, 

38, 9,  i  ne  bona  hereditaria  vacua  sine  domino  diutius 

iacerent  et  creditoribus  longior  mora  fieret. 

praetor  afforded  temporary  relief  at  vent  intestacy  (emendandi gratia) ; 

first  in  each  individual  case  after  by  setting  aside  some  old  rules  as 

judicial  inquiry  (causa  cognita)  by  inequitable  (impitgnandi  gratia}. 

issuing  a  special  decree  determin-  In  no  case,  however,  did  the  prae- 

ing  the  succession  (bonorum  pos-  tor   do   more    than   to  allow   the 

sessio  decretalis}.     Afterward  the  possessor  to  have  the  succession 

order  of  succession  was  regularly  in  bonis  (see    note    on  in   bonis, 

published    in   the   standing   edict  p.  185)  until  his  title  was  ripened 

{bonorum  possessio  edictalis} .  The  by  usucapio.      In   the   early  law, 

purpose  of  the  praetor  in  granting  continuous   possession   of  an   in- 

a  bonornm  possessio   was    three-  heritance    for    one   year    by  any 

fold  :  adiuvandi,  supplendi,  corri-  outside  party  (before  the  heir  has 

gendi  iuris  civilis  gratia,  i.e.  by  entered  upon  it)  gave  a  title  by 

applying  the  ancient  ius  civile  in  a  usucapion.     Some  have  held  this 

'more  equitable  manner  by  recog-  to  be  the  origin  of  bono  rum  posses- 

nizing   more   fully  the   claims  of  sio  (ne  bona  hereditaria  vacua  sine 

blood    relationship    (confirmandi  domino  dmtius  iacerent}. 
gratia)  ;  by  supplementing  the  old  15.   edictum    propositum:    the 

law  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  to  pre-  praetor  stated  in  his  edict  that  he 

ROMAN    LAW — 19  289 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Ulp.  28,  10 


Bonorum  possessio  datur  parentibus  et  liberis 
intra  annum,  ex  quo  petere  potuerunt,  ceteris 
intra  centum  dies.      Qui  omnes  intra  id  tempus   si  non 
petierint  bonorum  possessionem,  sequens  gradus  admitti- 
5  tur,  perinde  atque  si   superiores   non    essent ;    idque  per 
septem  gradus  fit. 

Paul.  D.  Bonorum    possessionis    beneficium    multiplex 

37,  i,  6,  i        est .  nam  quaedam  bonorum  possessiones  com- 
petunt  contra  voluntatem,  quaedam  secundum  voluntatem 
10  defunctorum,  nee  non  ab  intestate  habentibus  ius   legiti- 
mum  vel  non  habentibus  propter  capitis  deminutionem. 


would  grant  an  interdict  in  favor  of 
the  bonorum  possessor  to  enable  him 
to  recover  the  estate  of  the  de- 
ceased. This  interdict  or  magis- 
terial order,  called  from  its  initial 
words  'quorum  bonorum,'  ran  as 
follows  :  Ait  praetor, '  quorum  bo- 
norum ex  edicto  meo  illi  possessio 
data  est,  quod  de  his  bonis  pro 
herede  aut  pro  possessor e  possides 
possideresve,  si  nihil  usucaptum 
esset,  quod  quidem  dolo  malo  fe- 
cisti,  uti  desineres  possidere,  id  illi 
restituas?  This  enabled  the  bono- 
rum possessor  to  recover  corporeal 
things  ;  for  debts  he  could  sue  and 
be  sued  by  fictitious  actions  in 
which  he  was  assumed  to  be  the 
heir  (actiones  ficticiae~).  In  omni- 
bus vice  heredum  bonorum  posses- 
sores  habentur,  D.  37,  i,  2. 

2.  intra  annum :  as  the  acquisi- 
tion of  succession  by  bonorum  pos- 
sessio was  voluntary,  the  proper  per- 
sons must  make  demand  for  their 
succession  before  the  praetor  within 


the  prescribed  time.  For  parents 
and  children  (i.e.  ascendants  and 
descendants),  this  was  one  year, 
corresponding  to  the  period  re- 
quired for  usucapion  of  an  inherit- 
ance ;  and  for  others,  a  period  of 
one  hundred  days,  corresponding 
to  the  time  of  cretio.  In  both 
cases,  time  was  reckoned  utiliter, 
cf.  note  on  intra,  p.  241. 

7.  beneficium  multiplex  est :  the 
delatio  or  offer  of  bonorum  posses- 
sio (like  her  edit  as)  is  based  upon 
a  will  or  it  may  arise  ab  intestato. 
In  the  former  case  it  may  be  given 
contra,  tabulas  (contra  volunta- 
tem'), i.e.  the  praetor  set  the  will 
aside  as  inequitable  and  admitted 
children  who  had  been  passed 
over  in  their  father's  will,  e.g. 
emancipated  descendants ;  or  it 
may  be  secundum  tabulas  (secun- 
dum voluntatem},  the  praetor  up- 
holding a  will  which  lacked  some 
requirements  of  the  civil  law  and 
was  legally  invalid.  In  bonorum 


290 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Inst.  3,  9,  2 


Quos  autem  praetor  solus  vocat  ad  heredita- 
tem,  heredes  quidem  ipso  iure  non  fiunt  (nam 
praetor  heredem  facere  non  potest;  per  legem  enim  tan- 
turn  vel  similem  iuris  constitutionem  heredes  fiunt,  veluti 
5  per  senatus  consultum  et  constitutiones  principales);  sed 
cum  eis  praetor  dat  bonorura  possession  em,  loco  heredum 
constituuntur  et  vocantur  bonorum  possessores. 

Bonorum  possessio  aut  cum  re  datur  aut  sine 
re  :  cum  re,  cum  is  qui  accepit  cum  effectu  bona 
10  retineat;    sine  re,  cum  alius  iure  civili  evincere  heredita- 
tem  possit ;    veluti  si  suus   heres  in  testamento  praeteri- 
tus  sit,  licet  scriptis  heredibus  secundum  tabulas  bonorum 
possessio  deferatur,  erit  tamen  ea  bonorum  possessio  sine 
re,  quoniam  suus  heres  evincere  hereditatem  iure  legitimo 
15  potest. 


Ulp.  28,  13 


possessio  ab  intestate,  the  praetor 
extended  the  list  of  those  whom 
the  Twelve  Tables  called  to  an 
intestate  inheritance  (see  note  on 
primum,  p.  285)  to  children  (li- 
beri),  statutory  heirs  (legitimi), 
cognates  (cognati),  husband  and 
wife  (yir  et  uxor},  each  order  suc- 
ceeding upon  failure  of  the  pre- 
ceding. 

8.  cum  re  aut  sine  re  :  if  the  civil 
heir  should  not  apply  to  the  prae- 
tor for  the  possession  or  should  not 


assert  his  title,  any  one  of  remoter 
claim  might  make  application  for 
the  inheritance.  If,  however,  the 
praetor  had  made  a  provisional 
award  to  a  bonorum  possessor,  he 
could  be  evicted  by  the  civil  heir, 
and  the  possession  being  only  pro- 
visional was  said  to  be  sine  re,  i.e. 
in  name,  but  not  in  fact.  Those 
from  whom  the  inheritance  could 
not  be  called  away  were  said  to 
have  bonorum  possessio  cum  re 
(in  name  and  fact). 


291 


APPENDIX 

WORKS   CITED   OR  CONSULTED 

Baron,  Geschichte  des  romischen  Rechts.     Erster  Teil :  Institu- 

tionen  u.  Civilprozess,  Berlin,  1884. 
Benech,  Sur  les  classiques  latins,  Paris,  1853. 
Birkmeyer,  Encyclopadie  der  Rechtswissenschaft,  Berlin,  1901. 
Bluhme,  Monumenta  Germaniae  Historica,  Leges  III,  V,  Hanno- 
ver, 1863,  1875. 
Booking,   Bethmann-Hollweg,  and  others,  Corpus  iuris  Roman! 

anteiustiniani,  Bonn,  1831  ff. 
Bremer,    Die    Rechtslehrer    und    Rechtsschulen    im    romischen 

Kaiserreich,  Berlin,  1868. 
Brissonius,  De  verborum  quae  ad  ius  civile  pertinent  significatione, 

Halle,  1743. 
Bruns,  Fontes  iuris  Romani  antiqui,  6th  ed.,  Freiburg  and  Leipzig, 

1893. 
and  Sachau,  Das   Syrisch-Romische  Rechtsbuch,   Leipzig, 

1880. 

Bryce,  Studies  in  History  and  Jurisprudence,  Oxford,  1901. 
Costa,  II  Diritto  Private  Romano  nelle  Comedie  di  Plauto,  Turin, 

1890. 
Exner,  Grundriss  zu  Vorlesungen  tiber  Geschichte  und  Institu- 

tionen  des  romischen  Rechts,  Wien,  1891. 
Gasquay,  Ciceron  Jurisconsulte,  Paris,  1887. 
Greenidge,  Roman  Public  Life,  London  and  New  York,  1901. 

The  Legal  Procedure  of  Cicero's  Time,  Oxford,  1901. 

Hadley,  Introduction  to  Roman  Law,  New  York,  1902. 

293 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Hanel,  Corpus  legum  ab  imperatoribus  Romanis  ante  lustinianum 

latarum,  Leipzig,  1857. 
Henriot,  Mceurs  juridiques   et  judiciaires   de   1'ancienne  Rome 

d'apres  les  poetes  latins,  Paris,  1865. 
Herzog,  Geschichte   u.  System  der   romischen  Staatsverfassung, 

Leipzig,  1884-91. 
Heumann,  Handlexikon  zu  den  Quellen  des  romischen  Rechts, 

8th  ed.,  Jena,  1895. 

Hofmann,  Die  Compilation  der  Digesten  Justinians,  Wien,  1900. 
Holder,  Institutionen  des  romischen  Rechtes,  3d  ed.,  Freiburg 

and  Leipzig,  1893. 

Holmes,  The  Common  Law,  Boston,  1881. 
Hunter,  A  Historical  and  Systematic   Exposition  of  the  Roman 

Law,  London,  1876. 
Huschke,  lurisprudentiae  anteiustinianae  quae  supersunt,  Leipzig, 

1886. 
Ihering,  Geist  des  romischen  Rechts  auf  den  verschiedenen  Stufen 

seiner  Entwicklung,  Leipzig,  1888-98. 
Jors,  Romische  Rechtswissenschaft  zur  Zeit  der  Republik,  Berlin, 

1888. 

Kalb,  Das  Juristlatein,  2d  ed.,  Niirnberg,  1888. 
Roms   Juristen,   nach   ihrer   Sprache   dargestellt,   Leipzig, 

1890. 

Karlovva,  Romische  Rechtsgeschichte,  Leipzig,  1885-1901. 
Keller,  Semestrium  ad  M.  Tullium  Ciceronem  libri  tres,  Zurich, 

1842. 

Kipp,  Quellenkunde  des  romischen  Rechts,  Leipzig,  1896. 
Kriiger,  Geschichte  der  Quellen  und  Litteratur  des  romischen 

Rechts,  Leipzig,  1888. 

Institutiones  lustiniani,  Berlin,  1900. 

and  Studemund,  Gai  institutiones,  Berlin,  1899. 

Lange,  Romische  Altertiimer,  Berlin,  1856-71. 

Lenel,  Das  Edictum  Perpetuum,  Leipzig,  1883. 

-  Palingenesia  Juris  civilis,  Leipzig,  1888-9. 

294 


APPENDIX 

Leonhard,  Institutionen  des  romischen  Rechts,  Leipzig,  1894. 
Mackenzie,  Studies  in  Roman  Law,  Edinburgh  and  London,  1886. 
Madvig,   Die  Verfassung  u.   Verwaltung  des   romischen  Staates, 

Leipzig,  1 88 1-2. 
May  and  Becker,  Precis  des  institutions  du  droit  priv^  de  Rome, 

Paris,  1892. 

Milman,  The  History  of  Latin  Christianity,  New  York,  1881. 
Mommsen,  Romische  Forschungen,  I,  Berlin,  1879. 

-  Romisches  Staatsrecht,  Leipzig,  1887. 

—  Abriss  des  romischen  Staatsrechts,  Leipzig,  1893. 

-  Romisches  Strafrecht,  Leipzig,  1899. 

-  Krliger  and  Studemund,  Collectio  librorum  Juris  anteiustini- 
ani,  Berlin,  1878-99. 

-  Kriiger  and  Scholl,  Corpus  Juris  Civilis,  Berlin,  1895. 
Morey,  Outlines  of  Roman  Law,  New  York,  7th  ed.,  1894. 
Moyle,  Imperatoris  lustiniani  institutionum  libri  quattuor,  Oxford, 

1896. 
Muirhead,  Historical  Introduction  to  the  Private  Law  of  Rome, 

Edinburgh,  1886. 

Orelli-Baiter,  Onomasticon  Tullianum,  Zurich,  1836-8. 
Ortolan,  Explication  historique  des  instituts  de  1'empereur  Justinien, 

Paris,  1883. 
Pauly,  Real-Encyclopadie  der  classischen  Altertumswissenschaft, 

Stuttgart,  1839. 
Poste,  Gaii  institutionum  iuris  civilis  commentarii  quattuor,  Oxford, 

1890. 
Puchte,  Geschichte  des  Rechts  bei  dem  romischen  Volk,  loth  ed., 

Leipzig,  1893. 

Rivier,  Introduction  historique  au  droit  Remain,  Bruxelles,  1881. 
Roby,  Roman  Private  Law  in  the  Times  of  Cicero  and  of  the 

Antonines,  Cambridge,  1902. 

Rudorff,  Romische  Rechtsgeschichte,  Leipzig,  1857-9. 
Salkowski,  Lehrbuch  der  Institutionen  u.  Geschichte  des  romischen 

Privatrechts,  6th  ed.,  1892. 

295 


SELECTED  TEXTS  FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 

Sandars,  The  Institutes  of  Justinian,  8th  ed.,  London  and  New 

York,  1888. 
Sanio,  Varroniana  in  den  Schriften  der  romischen  Juristen,  Leipzig, 

1867. 
Schmalz,  Miiller's  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft, 

II,  2d  ed.,  Nordlingen,  1889. 

Scholl,  Legis  duodecim  tabularum  reliquiae,  Leipzig,  1866. 
Schrader,  Corpus  luris  Civilis,  I,  Berlin,  1832. 
Schulin,  Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte  des  romischen  Rechtes,  Stutt- 
gart, 1889. 
Sohm,  Institutionen  des   romischen   Rechtes,   8th  and  gth  ed., 

Leipzig,  1899. 
The  Institutes  of  Roman  Law,  translated  by  J.  C.  Ledlie, 

Oxford,  1892. 
Studemund,   Gaii  institutionum  commentarii  quattuor.      Codicis 

Veronensis  denuo  collati  apographum,  Leipzig,  1874. 
Williams,  The  Institutes  of  Justinian  illustrated  by  English  Law, 

London,  1893. 


296 


INDEX  TO  THE  INTRODUCTION  AND  NOTES 


(The  figures  refer  to  the  pages.) 


abdicatio  tutelae,  149,  150. 

absentes,  defined,  186. 

acceptum  ferre,  207. 

accessio,  169;  possessionis,  186;  how 
differs  from  specification,  176. 

acquisition  of  ownership,  165;  by  ac- 
cession, 169;  by  acting  as  heir, 
283;  by  cretion,  283;  by  civil 
and  natural  modes,  166;  by  in 
iure  cessio,  183;  by  mancipa- 
tion, 181;  by  occupation,  166; 
by  prescription,  187;  rerum 
singularum,  165;  by  specifica- 
tion, 171;  of  treasure-trove, 
179;  per  universitatem,  165, 
174,  256;  by  usucapio,  184. 

actio  aestitnatoria,  212;  auctoritatis, 
214;  bonae  fide i,  2O2;  commo- 
dati,  202;  communi  dividundo, 
230;  depositi,2o^;  dolietfttrti 
adversus  nautas,  etc.,  257;  de 
deiecto  effusove,  256;  exercito- 
ria,  226;  ad  exhibendum,  173, 
177,  178;  familiae  erciscundae, 
230;  in  factum,  247;  instito- 
ria,  226;  iniuriarum,  252; 
iniuriarum  aestimatoria,  253; 
legis,  49;  legis  Aquiliae,  243; 
mandati,  227;  mixta,  233,  244; 
noxalis,  258;  negotiorum  ges- 
torum,  228;  de  patiperie,  258; 
pigneraticia,  204;  poenalis, 
232;  popularis,  256;  de  posito 
et  suspense,  256;  publica,  151; 
quanti  minoris,  215;  redhibi- 
toria,  215;  r^z  persecutoria, 
232;  z'»  r^w,  175;  /r0  ^<?«'(7, 
223;  </i?  tigno  iuncto,  173; 
tutelae,  230;  w^7/5,  176,  247; 
z/z  bonorum  raptorum,  242. 


ar/M^,  192,  193. 

addictus,  233,  237. 

aditio  hereditatis,  231,  260,  282. 

adoptio,  132,  133. 

adpulsus  pecoris  ad  aquam,  192. 

adstipulator,  243. 

adultus,  142. 

adversaria,  207. 

advocatus,  48. 

aediles,  55,  60. 

aediles'  edict,  215. 

aw  ^  libram,  182;  wills  made,  266, 
272. 

a^/'aj  niaior,  120;  perfecta,  140. 

affinitas,  115. 

age  of  puberty,  120. 

agere,  20. 

tfgw  limitatus,  162;  stipendiarius, 
162,  218;  vectigalis,  162,  218. 

agnati,  107 ;  of  Twelve  Tables,  285. 

album  praetoris.  15. 

alluvial  soil,  169. 

altius  tollendi  servitus,  191. 

alveus  relic tus,  169. 

ancillae  partus,  195. 

animus  fraudandi,  98;  ftirandi,  239; 
iniuriandi,  252;  in  possession, 
1 66,  1 86;  remanendi,  86:  TV- 
•vertendi,  167. 

annus  utilis,  241. 

Appius  Claudius  Caecus,  49;  the  De- 
cemvir, 56. 

aquaeductus,  192. 

aquae  et  ignis  interdictio,  137. 

aquaehaustus,  192. 

arcarium  nomen,  207. 

arra,  arrabo,  21 1 ;  sponsalicia,  119. 

arrogalio,  133,  135. 

artificial  persons,  77. 

«5,  parts  of,  183,  276. 


297 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM  THE   ROMAN    LAW 


assertor  libertatis,  90. 

auc tores  iuris,  21. 

auctoritas,    of    guardian,    141, 


'S3; 


guaranty  of  title,  214;  patrum, 

16,  51. 
aversio,  213. 
avulsio,  169. 

Barbarian  Codes,  28. 

beneficium  abstinendi,  283;  delibe- 
randi,  284. 

betrothal,  119. 

bonae  fidei  negotium,  202. 

bonis,  in,  185. 

bonorum  cessio,  223. 

honor um  possessio,  288;  contra  tabu- 
las,  290;  cum  re,  291;  secun- 
dum  tabulas,  290. 

bookkeeping,  226. 

Bruns,  Fontes  iuris  antiqui,  40. 

caelibes,  disability  of,  274. 

calata  comitia,  265. 

capitalis  poena,  237. 

capitis  deminutio,  136. 

captives,  status  of,  84. 

co-put,  77,  136. 

castrense  peculium,  263. 

ra««,  203,  204,  219. 

causa  liber  alls,  57,  90. 

causa  Mancini,  87. 

causam  probare,  109. 

cautio  usufructuaria,  196  ;   usuaria, 

197. 

caveat  emptor,  215. 
cavere,  20. 
cenacula,  256. 
censor,  54. 

«WJM  manumissio,  91. 
cessio,  in  iure,  183  ;   bonorum,  223. 
child,  status  at  birth,  78. 
chirographitm,  208. 
circumscriptio  adulescentium,  140. 
civitas,  as  element  of  status,  77,  136, 

138. 

classical  Roman  law,  21. 
codex  accepti  et  expensi,  206. 
Codex  Gregorianus,  23,  36  ;   Hermo- 

genianus,  24,  36  ;  lustinianus, 

25  ;    Theodosianus,  24,  36. 


coemptio,  118,  122,  126;  jiduciaria, 
126,  264 ;  matrimonii  causa, 
126. 

coemptionales  senes,  127. 

cognati,  108. 

cognatio  legitima,  108  ;  naturales,  108. 

Collatio  legum  Mosaicarum,  24,  35. 

Collectio  librorum  iuris  anteiustini- 
ani,  39. 

collegia,  77. 

co Ion  us,  219. 

commentarii  pontificum,  19= 

commercium,  158. 

commixtio,  173. 

commodatum,  202. 

concubinatus,  112,  113. 

condicione  tua  non  utor,  121. 

condictio  certi,  202 ;  furtiva,  242 ; 
indebiti,  231. 

condominium,  173. 

conductio,  217. 

confarreatio,  118,  122,  126. 

confusio,  173. 

consensus,  in  adoption,  134  ;  in  con- 
tracts, 20 1,  209  ;  of  marriage, 
no,  ill,  118,  119;  sponsa- 
licius,  not  actionable,  119. 

consobrini,  114. 

constitutions  of  the  emperors,  17. 

consuetude,  II,  74. 

consul,  criminal  jurisdiction  of,  54. 

Consultatio  iuris  consulti,  24,  35. 

contracts,  consensu,  201  ;  litteris, 
206 ;  rc,  20 1 ;  verbis,  205. 

contubernium,  113. 

conubium,  in,  116. 

conventio  in  manum,  no,  125,  137. 

convicium,  103,  251. 

corpora  cohaerentia,  distantia,  178. 

corporations,  77. 

Corpus  Iuris  Civilis,  28,  30. 

Coruncanivis,  19. 

creditor,  meaning  of,  199. 

<r>v#'0,  273,  283. 

culpa,  151,  202,  203,  213,  229,  250. 

cura,  curatio,  139,  155 ;  bonorum, 
156;  debilium  personarum, 
156;  minor um,  120;  how  dif- 
fers from  tutela,  141  ;  ventris, 
156. 


298 


INDEX 


curator,  when  excused,  143. 
curule  aedile,  58. 
customary  law,  n,  74. 

damnas  esto,  244. 

damnum  iniuria,  232. 

debitor,  meaning  of,  199. 

Decemviri,  1 2  ;  litibtts  iudicandis,  59. 

decrees  of  the  senate,  16,  37. 

decreta,  17. 

dedere  noxae,  215,  240,  258. 

dedicatio,  159- 

dediticii,  89. 

deditio  ad  hostem,  88,  137. 

deductio  in  domum,  118. 

delatio  hereditatis,  260. 

delicta,  232. 

deminutio  capitis,  136. 

flfe  piano,  47,  90. 

deportatio,  137. 

depositum,  204. 

detention,  1 86. 

diffarreatio,  122. 

Digest  of  Justinian,  26,  31  ;  how 
divided,  26 ;  method  of  cita- 
tion, 45. 

diligentia,  203,  228  ;  exacta,  205. 

disinherison,  280. 

dispiitatio  fori,  2O,  48. 

divortium,  121,123;  bona  gratia,  123. 

documents,  private,  38. 

ob,  </zV0,  addico,  184. 

</0/w.r,  151,  202,  204,  229,  250. 

dominica  potestas,  89. 

dominium,  88,  165,  188. 

edicts  of  magistrates,  14  ;  remains  of, 

37- 

edictum  aediliciiim,  15,  215;  luna- 
mim,  1 6,  38;  magistratuum 
14;  perpetuum,  15,  38,  72; 
principum,  17  ;  provinciate 
15;  repentimun,  15;  Theodo 
rid,  29  ;  tralaticium,  15. 

emancipation,  105. 

emphyteusis,  189. 

emptio,  209,  211  ;    rei  futurae,  211 
spei,  212. 

epistulae  principum,  \  7. 


pitome  Gaii,  32. 

tymology  in  law  Latin,  45,  106. 

vie  do,  214. 

oWz  wtf/z,  175  ;  /<g 
za<?,  140. 
xcusationes  tutorum,  143. 
xercitor,  226,  257. 
xhibendum,  actio  ad,  173,  177,  178. 

'         causa,  186. 
xpensum  ferre,  207. 
xtraneus,  133. 

ordinem  procedure,  225,  254. 

familia,  definition  of,  104 ;    effect  of 
change  in,  138  ;    f«rw  civilis, 
107  ;    z«r«  gentium,  108  ;    as 
element  of  status,  77,  136. 
familiae  emptor,  266. 

,  1 8,  19. 
favor  libertatis,  82. 
naturae,  167. 
ferruminatio,  178. 
festiica,  59,  90. 

'5  /<g-z'j  Corneliae,  84. 
z  bonae  negotium,  2O2. 
fideicornmissum,  61. 
fideiussio,  226. 
Jiducia,  126. 

_/?/«'  nullius,  113  ;  legitimi,  128. 
filiusfamilias,    128 ;    position   of,   in 

public  law,  132,  138. 
fiscus,  77. 

flamen  Dialis,  126,  130. 
Fragmenta  Vaticana,  24,  35. 
Fragmentum  de  iure  fad,  34  ;   Don* 
theanum,  34;   de  formula  Fa- 
biana,  34. 

freedmen,  82,  89,  102,  103. 
freemen,  79. 

fructus  =  ususfructus,  195. 
fundus,  161. 

furiosus,  H2,  113,  155,  263. 
furtum,  232,  233  ;  concept  urn,  235  ; 
ipsius  rei,  233 ;  manifestum, 
234,  236  ;  o/i?  consilio  factum, 
233 ;  possessionis,  233 ;  #s«.r, 
233. 

furtum  sine  dolo  malo  non  committi- 
tur,  233. 


299 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


Gaius,  32. 

gestio,  of  guardian,  141;  negotiorum, 
228  ;  pro  herede,  283. 

grammatici,  exempt  from  public  du- 
ties, 144. 

Greek  influence  on  Twelve  Tables,  13. 

guardian,  when  excused,  143,  144, 
149;  in  Twelve  Tables,  147; 
when  guardianship  terminates, 
149;  of  women,  152. 

habitatio,  198. 

heirs,  necessary,  282  ;  substitution  of, 

277. 
heredes,   extranei,   273,   279 ;    imtiti, 

282;   legitimi,  261  ;   necessarii, 

273,  282  ;  soli  et  necessarii,  97  ; 

sui,  278  ;   voluntarii,  273,  279. 
heredis  institutio,  272. 
hereditas,  259  ;   adita,  260  ;   damnosa, 

283;   delata,  260;    iacens,  156, 

260 ;    legitima,  261  ;  testamen- 

taria,  261. 
Hermodorus,  48. 
hire,  217. 

homo  =  servus,  157. 
honorarium,  not  actionable,  225. 
honorarium  ius,  1 6. 
hypoiheca,  189. 

impediments  to  marriage,  1 14. 
imperium,   of    consuls,  54 ;     of  dic- 
tator, 55. 
impuberes,    107,    120;    arrogatio   of, 

135- 

inaedificatio,  169. 

in  bonis,  185. 

incerta  persona,  274. 

incestuosi,  113. 

indebiti  solutio,  231. 

in  fact um  aclio,  247. 

infamia,  119,  151,  223,  228,  253. 

infantes,  120,  139. 

infantia  maiores,  I2O,  139,  150. 

infinitive,  subject  omitted,  177. 

infitiatio,  244. 

ingenuus,  81. 

inheritance,  how  divided,  276;  divided, 
/<?r  capita,  285  ;  /<?r  stirpes, 
285  ;  «£  intestate,  284. 


*';/  integrum  restitutio,  121. 

z«  Z'M/V  cessio,  165,  183. 

iniuria,  98,  232,  250  ;   atrox,  254. 

iniuriarum  actio,  252. 

injury  under  &.*  Aquilia,  243. 

?«  mancipio  esse,  meaning  of,  128. 

z'«  manum  conventio,  no,  125,  137. 

inojficiosum  testamenttim,  280,  282. 

i»  servitute  esse,  meaning  of,  82. 

institor,  226. 

institoria  actio,  226. 

Institutes  of  Gaius,  32  ;   of  Justinian, 

27.3I- 

institutio  heredis,  272. 

insula  in  flumine,  169  ;  ZM  mari,  169. 

inter  absentes,  179,  1 86. 

interdictio  aquae  et  ignis,  137. 

intcrdictum  unde  vi,  106. 

interpositio  auctoritatis,  141. 

inter  praesentes,  179,  1 86. 

interpretation,  of  jurists,  20  ;  as  source 
of  law,  20,  52. 

intestabiles,  268. 

intestate  succession,  284. 

zV.fr,  192,  193. 

index,  defined,  255. 

index  qiti  litem  suam  facit,  255. 

indicium,  240;   domesticum,  124. 

iumenta,  meaning  of,  216. 

luniani,  89,  269. 

zwra  z'«  >v  aliena,  1 88. 

iurisconsulti,  48,  53. 

iurisprudentia,  49,  72. 

ZM5,  Aelianum,  50 ;  altius  tollendi, 
191 ;  altius  non  extollendi,  191  ; 
aureorum  anulorum,  82  ;  <:«/- 
fz'j  coquendae,  192;  civile,  16, 
76,  208,  239,  284 ;  edicendi,  15; 
Flavianum,  19,  50,  64 ;  £?«- 
tium,  20,  76,  80,  208  ;  honora- 
rium, 16;  z'w  personam,  211, 
228,  232;  z«  r^«,  204,  211, 
232;  Latii,  101  ;  luminis  im- 
mittendi,  192 ;  Papirianum, 
12,46;  pascendi,  192;  proici- 
endi,  191;  potestatis,  128; 
praetorium,  16;  respondendi, 
20;  trium  liberorum,  79; 
utendi,  fruendi,  157,  188,  195, 

iustae  nuptiae,  in. 


300 


jurisprudence,  18. 
Justinian  legislation,  24. 

Labeo,  23,  69. 

Latini  luniani,  89,  269. 

latio  legis,  46. 

law,  enactment  of,  46  ;  publication  of, 
47 ;  written,  unwritten,  74. 

leges  regiae,  12,  37. 

/3§w,  remains  of,  37. 

legis,  actio,  49 ;  /0/z'o,  46  ;   rogatio,  46. 

legitimatio  per  subsequent  matrimo- 
nium,  1 29. 

/<?.*,  12,46;  /f^/zVz  Sentia,  89,97,  IO95 
Aquilia,  242,  243,  246,  247; 
Canuleia,  116 ;  Cornelia,  245; 
Falcidia,  282  ;  /«/?«  Caninia, 
99 ;  Hortensia,  5 1 ;  <fc  imperio, 
52;  7»/zVz,  79,  152,  274;  7«/zV? 
</,»  adulteriis,  124;  7w/z«  </<? 
maritandis,  116,  154;  7w/z0  dfe 
wz,  240;  Junta  Norbana,  89; 
/fc/zVz  Poppaea,  79,  152,  274; 
perlata,  47;  perrogata,  47; 
Plaetoria,  121,  140;  Valeria, 
47,  54 ;  Vellaea,  274 ;  afc  wzV*- 
jiwa  hereditatum,  67  ;  Voconia, 
286;  Romano,  Burgundionum, 
30;  Romana  Visigothorum,  29. 

liber  alls  causa,  57,  90. 

/z£<?rz   legitimi,  128;    naturalis,  112, 

1 29 ;  vulgo  concepti,  113. 
libertas,  as  element  of  status,  77,  136, 

138- 

liberiatis  favore,  80. 
libertinus,  82,  89,  102,  103. 
liberlus,  89  ;   orcinus,  92,  102. 
liberum  corpus  aeslimationem  non  re- 

cipit,  246. 
libripens,  181. 
libri  pontificum,  19. 
licium,  238. 
/zVm  suam  facere,  255. 
literature,  of  the   classical   law,  21  ; 

non-juristic,    38 ;     importance 

of  text  writers,  52,  53. 
litterarum  obligatio,  206. 
/f/«5  mar  is,  161. 
locatio,  217. 
/oc«J  religiosus,  1 60. 


7  temporis  possessi o,  187. 
utninum  servitus,  192. 
ustrum  conditum,  91. 

magistrates  exiraordinarii,  47. 

niaior  aetas,  120. 

Mancini  causa,  87. 

nandpatio,  165,  181. 

mancipia  =  slaves,  215. 

mancipio,  syntax  of,  182. 

mancipi  res,  163,  164,  181,  185. 

mancipium,  181  ;   zw  mancipio,  128. 

mandata,  imperial,  1 8,  269. 

mandatum,  224. 

manumissio,  88;   censu,  91  ;   in  eccle- 

siis,  93 ;  Jideicommissaria,  92, 

93  ;    testamento,  91 ;    vindicta, 

90. 

manumission  restricted,  95. 
manus,  88,   no,   118,  125;    wife   z'w 

manu,  125. 

maritalis  affectio,  no,  1 1 2. 
marriage,  1 10 ;  conditions  of,  1 1 1  ;  of 

cousins,    114;     dissolution    of, 

121  ;    with  freedwoman,   116; 

impediments    to,    114;     z'wr/j 

civilis,  in;  with  infantes,  1 16 ; 

with  wife's  sister,  115. 
master  and  slave,  83,  88,  90. 
materfamilias,  104. 
matrimonium,    no;    iustum,   legiti- 

mum,  in. 

'«  tempora  non  nocent,  273. 
medici,    exempt   from   public    duties, 

145- 

mente  captt,  150. 
merces,  217. 
missio  in  bona,  125. 
monstra,   disposition    of,    in    Twelve 

Tables,  79. 
;«<w,  mores,  n. 
mulier  familiae  suae  et  caput  et  Jinis 

est,  107,  116. 
mutuum,  201. 

nasciturus  pro  iam  nato  habetur,  78. 
naturales  liberi,  112. 
negotiorum  gestio,  228. 
negotium  bonaefidei,  202. 


301 


SELECTED   TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


nexum,  201. 

Niebuhr's  discovery  of  Gaius,  32. 

nomen,  a  debt,  207  ;   arcarium,  207  ; 

gentilicium,   IO2  ;    transcripti- 

cium,  207. 

nom  inatio  potioris,  143,  145. 
Novellae,  28. 
no xa  caput  sequitur,  258. 
noxae  deditio,  215,  240,  258. 
nuda  proprietas,  165,  189,  196. 
nuduin  pactum,  zoo,  205. 
nuncupatio,  266. 
nuptiae,  no. 
nuptias  non  concubitus  sed  consensus 

facit,  1 1 8. 

obligations,  199,  200;  consensu,  209; 
ex  contractu,  200;  quasi  ex 
contractu,  200,  228  ;  litteris, 
206;  exmaleficio  {delicto),  200, 
232;  quasi  ex  maleficio,  2OI, 
255 ;  TV,  201 ;  verbis,  205. 

obsequium,  103. 

occupatio,  1 66. 

0///0  tutor  is,  153. 

orfo',  274. 

orcinus  libertus,  92,  102. 

pactum  nudum,  200,  205. 

painting,  as  title,  176. 

Pandects,  25. 

Papinian,    22 ;     Responsorum    Frag- 

menta,  35. 

parens  manumissor,  147. 
parentes  —  male  ascendants,  1 1 2. 
partnership,  220. 
par  (us  sequitur  ventrem,  113. 
paterfamilias,  104,  128. 
patria  potestas,  89,  107,  127,  129;    in 

public  law,  132. 
patrimonitim,  158. 
patron  and  freedman,  102. 
Paul  us,  22;   Sententiae  of,  33. 
pauperies,  258. 
peculates,  234. 
peculium  castrense,  263. 
pecunia,  in  early  law,  145,  164;    ««- 

merata,  212. 
peregrini,  15,  8 1,  84;     in   marriage, 

116. 


perfecta  aetas,  140. 
periculum  rei  venditae,  213. 
permutatio,  209. 

persona,  77;  alieni  iuris,  104,  133, 
137;  incerta,  274;  j«z  »«r/j, 

104,  I33»  !37>  !39- 
pignus,  189,  204. 
pigneraticia  actio,  204. 
plantatio,  169. 
plebiscitum,  12,  50,  75. 
//?«a  adoptio,   133;  proprieias,  165; 

pubertas,  134. 
plumbalura,  178. 
poena    capitalis,    237;      iniuriarum, 

252;   quadrupli,  236. 
Pomponius,  41. 
pontiffs,  custodians  of  law,  18. 
possessi o,  meaning  of,  186. 
postlitninium,  85,  122,  168. 
postumus,  denned,  146  ;  alienus,suus, 

146. 

potestas  vitae  necisque,  83,  1 28. 
potioris  nominatio,  143,  145. 
praedia  rustica,  158,  162  ;   stipendia- 

ria,  162,  218  ;   tributaria,  162, 

218  ;    urbana,  158,  162. 
praedial  servitudes,  190. 
praedium  dominans  serviens,  194. 
praedium  servit  praedio,  194. 
praescriptio,  187. 
praescriptis  verbis,  228. 
praesentes,  denned,  1 86. 
praetor  Jideicommissarius,  61  ;  fisca- 

lis,   61  ;    peregrinus,   15,  59  ; 

tutelaris,    148  ;     urbanus,    15, 

59- 

praetorian  edict,  16,  76. 

pre-Justinian  Codes,  23 ;  constitu- 
tions, 36. 

prelium,  210,  212. 

private  documents  extant,  38. 

private  law,  denned,  73 ;  sources  of, 
II. 

probare  causam,  109. 

Proculiani,  172. 

prodigus,  155. 

profiteri  iuris  scientiam,  62. 

promise  of  marriage,  not  actionable, 
119. 

proprietas,  165. 


302 


INDEX 


prospectus,  192. 
pro  tribunali,  90. 
provincial  soil,  161. 
proximior,  170. 
puberes,  107;  feminae,  153. 
pubertas,  120,  134. 
publicatio,  223;   /<?£•«,  47. 
public  law,  defined,  73. 
pupillus,  defined,  142. 

quadruplum,  236,  242. 

quaestio  concepti  fur ti  per  licium,  238. 

querela  inofficiosi  testamenti,  280,  282. 

quinquaginta  decisiones,  25. 

quinqueviri  Cistiberes,  60. 

quod  principi  placuit  leges  habet  vigo- 

rem,  18. 
quod,  with  infinitive  clause,  175. 

rapina,  232,  239. 

religiosus  locus,  160. 

renuntiatio,  47. 

repudium,  121,  123;  repudii  libellus, 
124. 

/w,  meaning  of,  156;  z«  commercio, 
158;  communis  omnium,  160; 
dominans,  189;  divini  iuris, 
*59;  furtivae,  187;  hos  files, 
1 68;  humani  iuris,  159;  man- 
cipi,  163,  164,  1 8 1,  185;  »/<?- 
£z'/£j,  immobile*,  161,  162; 
nullius,  159,  1 66,  180;  r*- 
ligiosa,  159;  sacra,  159;  •?*»•- 
viens,  189;  vi  possessae,  187. 

TV.T  accessor ia  cedit  rei  principals,  171. 

r«  nullius  cedit  occupanti,  166. 

res  publica  =  wrfo,  61. 

rescripta  principum,  1 7. 

responsapontificum,  19;  prudentium, 

21,  48. 

restitutio  in  integrum,  1 21  ;  natalium, 

82. 

revocatio  in  servitutem,  81,  103,  137. 
rhetores,  exempt  from   public   duties, 

144. 

rights  z'»  personam,  in  rent,  228. 
risk,  of  thing  hired,  219;   in  sale,  213. 
rogatio  legis,  46;  populi,  135. 
rural  servitudes,  190. 


Sabiniani,  172. 

Sabinus,  69. 

sacrilegium,  234. 

sale,   209,    211  ;    pretii  participandi 

causa,  80,  137. 
.yaA'0,  169. 

satisdatio,  of  guardian,  149. 
Scaevola,  Q.  Mucius,  Pontifex  Maxi- 

mus,  65. 

Scholia  Sinaitica,  35. 
seashore,  160. 
senator    forbidden    to    marry    freed- 

woman,  116. 

senatus  consultum,  51,  75. 
Sententiae  of  Paulus,  33. 
j«-z/z  publici,  265. 
servitudes,  164,   188,    189;    praedial, 

190,  194  ;  personal,  194. 
servitus  =  servitium,  105. 
servitus,   actus,    itineris,   viae,    193 ; 

altius  tollendi,  191  ;  luminum, 

192;  officiendi prospectui,  191  ; 

proiciendi  protegendive,    191  ; 

stillicidii,    191  ;    A^wz    immit- 

tendi,  191  ;    «5M5,  197. 
servitus   in  faciendo    consistere    non 

potest,  190. 
servus    nullum   caput  habet,    79,  83, 

136. 

servus  poenae,  8 1  ;  publicus,  264. 
slavery,   84 ;     an    institution    of    *'w.r 

gentium,  80. 
slaves,  79,  83. 
societas,  220. 
soldiers'  wills,  266,  269. 
solum  Italicum,  161 ;  provinciale,  161. 
solutio,  199. 
sources   of  Roman   law,  extant,  30  ; 

postclassical,  23,  35  ;  selections 

from,  39  ;   for  study  of,  30. 
spadones,  134. 
specification,  171  ;    how   differs   from 

accession,  176. 
spondeo,  119. 
sponsalia,  119,  205,  211. 
sponsalidus  consensus,  not  actionable, 

119. 

sponsio,  119,  205. 
sponsus,  119. 
spurii,  113. 


303 


SELECTED  TEXTS   FROM   THE   ROMAN   LAW 


statu  liber,  92. 

statute  law,  12. 

status,  77,  78,  82  ;   of  child  at  birth, 

78,  8 1,  82. 
stillicidium,  191. 
stipendiarius  ager,  162,  2 1 8. 
stipulatio,  119,  205. 
subscriptions,  17. 
substitutio    heredum,    vulgaris,    277 ; 

pupillaris,  278. 
sui  heredes,  279 ;    of  Twelve  Tables, 

285. 

superficies,  189. 
superficies  solo  cedit,  167. 
syngrapha,  208. 
Syrio-Roman  law,  36. 

tabulae,  of  wills,  268  ;  contra  tabulas, 
290;  secundum  tabulas,2-ji,2<)O. 

tectoria,  189. 

tempus  continuum,  242  ;   «/z'&,  241. 

testamenti  factio,  262,  264,  273. 

tesiamentum,  261  ;  calatis  comitiis,<)2, 
265;  destitution,  271,  277  ;  i«- 
officiosuin,  280  ;  z'«  procinctu, 
266  ;  irritum,  270,  277  ;  wzz'/z- 
/z>,  269  ;  /Vr  ««  £/  libram,  266, 
276 ;  r upturn,  270. 

theft,  233. 

thensaurus,  179. 

traditio,  165,  185. 

transcriptio,  207. 

treasure-trove,  179. 

Tribonian,  24. 

tribuni,  plebis,  55  ;  consulari  potestate, 
58. 

tributaria  praedia,  162,  2 1 8. 

trinoctium,  127. 

triumviri  capitales,  60. 

tutela,  139;  dativa,  145,  148;  impu- 
berum,  139,  141,  153;  legitima, 
147;  mulierum,  139,  141,  153, 
154;  patronorum,  147;  to/ta- 
mentaria,  147. 

/«/0r,  qualifications  of,  141;  when  ex- 
cused, 143;  suspect  us,  151; 
tutoris  optio,  153. 

Twelve  Tables,  12,  13,  37;  malum 
carmen  and  membrum  ruptum 
in,  252. 


#£z  /w  «  Gaius,  etc.,  126. 

Ulpian,  22;    Fragments  of,  33. 

uncia  =  TV  of  inheritance,  276. 

universitas,  174. 

urban  servitudes,  190,  191. 

#.rw,  as  mode  of  marriage   (mattus), 

127. 
usucapio,  179,  184,  187,  1 88;   in  fo«0- 

r«/«  possessio,  289. 
usurpatio,  127. 
w^«,  1 1 8,  122,  127. 
ususfructus,  157,  195;    quasi,  196. 
M/Z  legassit  super  pecunia,  145. 
«///«  ar/z'o,  1 76,  247. 
u\or,  in  manu,  IIO,  125;   j?';^  manu, 

125- 

Valerius  Probus,  «0/tf<?  /«ri'j,  34. 
vectigalis  ager,  1 62. 
Velilis,  lubeatis  hoc,    Quirites,   Rogo, 

47- 

venditio  nunimo  uno,  212. 

venter  =  unborn  child,  78. 

Verginia,  case  of,  56. 

vestal  virgins,  exempt  from  tutela, 
152;  had  testamentary  capac- 
ity, 264. 

w'a,  192,  193. 

vicesima  hereditatum,  67. 

vindicatio  recta,  177;  r<fz,  173,  177, 
178,  183. 

vindiciae,  56. 

vindicta,  manumission  by,  90. 

2/z'5  maior,  203. 

votum,  200. 

wife,  z'w  loco  filiae,  1 10,  125 ;  z'«  manu, 
125;  has  choice  of  tutor,  153. 

wild  game,  167. 

wills,  261;  materials  written  on,  267; 
when  null,  270;  praetorian, 
271;  undutiful,  280,  282;  wit- 
nesses to,  268. 

women,  cannot  adopt,  134;  no  arro- 
gatio  of,  135;  guardianship  of, 
152;  testamentary  capacity  of, 
264;  as  tutors,  142. 

written  and  unwritten  law,  74. 

writing  as  accession  (title),  176. 

writings  of  jurists,  21,  32,  53. 


3°4 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LBRARY  FACILITY 


A     000  353  857     6 


